task in education meaning

What is a Performance Task? (Part 1)

Defined Learning

Performance Task PD with Jay McTighe — Blog

A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product and/or performance that serve as evidence of learning. Unlike a selected-response item (e.g., multiple-choice or matching) that asks students to select from given alternatives, a performance task presents a situation that calls for learners to apply their learning in context.

Performance tasks are routinely used in certain disciplines, such as visual and performing arts, physical education, and career-technology where performance is the natural focus of instruction. However, such tasks can (and should) be used in every subject area and at all grade levels.

Characteristics of Performance Tasks

While any performance by a learner might be considered a performance task (e.g., tying a shoe or drawing a picture), it is useful to distinguish between the application of specific and discrete skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball) from genuine performance in context (e.g., playing the game of basketball in which dribbling is one of many applied skills). Thus, when I use the term performance tasks, I am referring to more complex and authentic performances.

Here are seven general characteristics of performance tasks:

Performance tasks call for the application of knowledge and skills, not just recall or recognition.

In other words, the learner must actually use their learning to perform . These tasks typically yield a tangible product (e.g., graphic display, blog post) or performance (e.g., oral presentation, debate) that serve as evidence of their understanding and proficiency.

2. Performance tasks are open-ended and typically do not yield a single, correct answer.

Unlike selected- or brief constructed- response items that seek a “right” answer, performance tasks are open-ended. Thus, there can be different responses to the task that still meet success criteria. These tasks are also open in terms of process; i.e., there is typically not a single way of accomplishing the task.

3. Performance tasks establish novel and authentic contexts for performance.

These tasks present realistic conditions and constraints for students to navigate. For example, a mathematics task would present students with a never-before-seen problem that cannot be solved by simply “plugging in” numbers into a memorized algorithm. In an authentic task, students need to consider goals, audience, obstacles, and options to achieve a successful product or performance. Authentic tasks have a side benefit — they convey purpose and relevance to students, helping learners see a reason for putting forth effort in preparing for them.

4. Performance tasks provide evidence of understanding via transfer.

Understanding is revealed when students can transfer their learning to new and “messy” situations. Note that not all performances require transfer. For example, playing a musical instrument by following the notes or conducting a step-by-step science lab require minimal transfer. In contrast, rich performance tasks are open-ended and call “higher-order thinking” and the thoughtful application of knowledge and skills in context, rather than a scripted or formulaic performance.

5. Performance tasks are multi-faceted.

Unlike traditional test “items” that typically assess a single skill or fact, performance tasks are more complex. They involve multiple steps and thus can be used to assess several standards or outcomes.

6. Performance tasks can integrate two or more subjects as well as 21st century skills.

In the wider world beyond the school, most issues and problems do not present themselves neatly within subject area “silos.” While performance tasks can certainly be content-specific (e.g., mathematics, science, social studies), they also provide a vehicle for integrating two or more subjects and/or weaving in 21st century skills and Habits of Mind. One natural way of integrating subjects is to include a reading, research, and/or communication component (e.g., writing, graphics, oral or technology presentation) to tasks in content areas like social studies, science, health, business, health/physical education. Such tasks encourage students to see meaningful learning as integrated, rather than something that occurs in isolated subjects and segments.

7. Performances on open-ended tasks are evaluated with established criteria and rubrics.

Since these tasks do not yield a single answer, student products and performances should be judged against appropriate criteria aligned to the goals being assessed. Clearly defined and aligned criteria enable defensible, judgment-based evaluation. More detailed scoring rubrics, based on criteria, are used to profile varying levels of understanding and proficiency.

Let’s look at a few examples of performance tasks that reflect these characteristics:

Botanical Design (upper elementary)

Your landscape architectural firm is competing for a grant to redesign a public space in your community and to improve its appearance and utility. The goal of the grant is to create a community area where people can gather to enjoy themselves and the native plants of the region. The grant also aspires to educate people as to the types of trees, shrubs, and flowers that are native to the region. Your team will be responsible for selecting a public place in your area that you can improve for visitors and members of the community. You will have to research the area selected, create a scale drawing of the layout of the area you plan to redesign, propose a new design to include native plants of your region, and prepare educational materials that you will incorporate into the design.

Check out the full performance task from Defined STEM , here: Botanical Design Performance Task . Defined STEM is an online resource where you can find hundreds of K-12 standards-aligned project based performance tasks.

Evaluate the Claim (upper elementary/ middle school)

The Pooper Scooper Kitty Litter Company claims that their litter is 40% more absorbent than other brands. You are a Consumer Advocates researcher who has been asked to evaluate their claim. Develop a plan for conducting the investigation. Your plan should be specific enough so that the lab investigators could follow it to evaluate the claim.

Moving to South America (middle school)

Since they know that you have just completed a unit on South America, your aunt and uncle have asked you to help them decide where they should live when your aunt starts her new job as a consultant to a computer company operating throughout the region. They can choose to live anywhere in the continent.

Your task is to research potential home locations by examining relevant geographic, climatic, political, economic, historic, and cultural considerations. Then, write a letter to your aunt and uncle with your recommendation about a place for them to move. Be sure to explain your decision with reasons and evidence from your research.

Accident Scene Investigation (high school)

You are a law enforcement officer who has been hired by the District Attorney’s Office to set-up an accident scene investigation unit. Your first assignment is to work with a reporter from the local newspaper to develop a series of information pieces to inform the community about the role and benefits of applying forensic science to accident investigations.

Your team will share this information with the public through the various media resources owned and operated by the newspaper.

Check out the full performance task from Defined STEM here: Accident Scene Investigation Performance Task

In sum, performance tasks like these can be used to engage students in meaningful learning. Since rich performance tasks establish authentic contexts that reflect genuine applications of knowledge, students are often motivated and engaged by such “real world” challenges.

When used as assessments, performance tasks enable teachers to gauge student understanding and proficiency with complex processes (e.g., research, problem solving, and writing), not just measure discrete knowledge. They are well suited to integrating subject areas and linking content knowledge with the 21st Century Skills such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, and technology use. Moreover, performance-based assessment can also elicit Habits of Mind, such as precision and perseverance.

For a collection of authentic performance tasks and associated rubrics, see Defined STEM : https://www.definedstem.com

For a complete professional development course on performance tasks for your school or district, see Performance Task PD with Jay McTighe : http://www.performancetask.com

For more information about the design and use of performance tasks, see Core Learning: Assessing What Matters Most by Jay McTighe: http://www.schoolimprovement.com

Article originally posted: URL: http://performancetask.com/what-is-a-performance-task | Article Title: What is a Performance Task? | Website Title:PerformanceTask.com | Publication date: 2015–04–12

Written by Defined Learning

More from defined learning and performance task pd with jay mctighe — blog.

How will we evaluate student performance on tasks? (Part 6)

How Can Educators Design Authentic Performance Tasks? (Part 3)

How Should We Teach Toward Success with Performance Tasks? (Part 7)

Why Should We Use Performance Tasks? (Part 2)

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Educators Blog

What is a Performance Task?

By Jay McTighe,

Performance tasks can be used to engage students in meaningful learning. Since rich performance tasks establish authentic contexts that reflect genuine applications of knowledge, students are often motivated and engaged by such “real world” challenges.

When used as assessments, performance tasks enable teachers to gauge student understanding and proficiency with complex processes (e.g., research, problem-solving, and writing), not just measure discrete knowledge. They are well suited to integrating subject areas and linking content knowledge with the 21st Century Skills such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, and technology use. New research shows that such performance tasks lead to deeper understanding and can improve student achievement up +39%.

To learn how educators can create and implement effective performance tasks that drive student achievement, visit www.PerformanceTask.com .

Jay McTighe is a nationally recognized educator and author of the award-winning and best-selling Understanding by Design series with Grant Wiggins.

Editors Note: This is an excerpt from the article " What is a Performance Task ( Part 1)" published on the PerformanceTask.com blog.

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Introduction to Task-Based Learning (TBL)

What is a task and what is the best way to define and describe Task-Based Learning?

Do you think that incorporating meaningful tasks is a good way to motivate your learners?

Written by Sheila Corwin

Teacher Trainer in Florence

Task-Based Learning: what it is?

Task-Based Learning (TBL) is all about your students creating, producing, or designing something in class… it could be anything… anything at all. TBL includes the 21st Century skills of Communication, Collaboration, Creativity, and Critical Thinking (4C’s) and can also be described as a short interactive assignment that results in a finished product.

The Task part of Task-Based Learning has been (more or less) defined by linguistic scholars as:

things people do in everyday life (Long, 1985).
a goal-oriented activity that leads to an outcome or result (Willis, 1996).
a completed work plan which can be assessed (Ellis, 2003).

What kind of activity is a task?

In 2007, Jane Willis and her husband Dave Willis came up with the following criteria in their book Doing Task-Based Teaching (pp. 12-14) which can be used to discern a task:

Will the activity engage learners’ interest?
Is there a primary focus on meaning?
Is there a goal or an outcome?
Is success judged in terms of the result?
Is completion a priority?
Does the activity relate to real-world activities?

If your answer is yes to all the questions, you can be sure that the classroom activity you have in mind is task-like.

Task-Based Learning and Task-Based Language Teaching

TBL is an approach to teaching that was originally used by second or foreign-language teachers. It is an approach that stems from Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) – a language teacher methodology – which emerged in the 1970s.

Language teachers originally adopted Task-Based Learning for a variety of reasons with the most important being the desire to make their classrooms more student-centered, communicative, and collaborative by incorporating more interactive tasks.

Task-Based Learning (TBL) is also known as Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and Task-Based Instruction (TBI). Its principal focus is on the completion of meaningful tasks. Such tasks can include creating a poster, producing a newsletter, video, or pamphlet, or designing a map of the school or neighborhood.

The Task Cycle > Task / Plan / Report

The TBL formula includes the following stages:

The teacher introduces the topic and gives students clear instructions and guidelines on what they will be doing during the three-part task cycle (below). This phase will give students a clear understanding of what will be expected of them and include any important knowledge or details they need to know.

This is also a good time to lead into the task by brainstorming or asking questions about the topic. Teachers can also get students ready for the task by presenting an example of the task or introducing a picture, audio, or video which will be useful in completing the task.

Students get ready to do the task. Students are given what they need to complete the task (handouts and written instructions) and are assigned to work in pairs or small groups while the teacher monitors and offers encouragement when necessary. The teacher’s role is typically limited to one of a coach, guide, and facilitator.

Students work on the task in pairs or small groups and prepare to report or present their results or product. They make important decisions about their presentation and assign each person in the group with a part of the task to present, so everyone takes responsibility during the report stage. The group rehearses its presentation. The teacher walks around, helps if needed, and takes notes on anything that needs to be addressed after the presentations.

Report/Present

Students present their findings to the class in the form of a presentation. The rest of the class listens to the reports and writes down feedback which will be given to the presenters after all reports have been heard. The class can also ask questions or provide some quick oral feedback after each presentation. The teacher also gives feedback on the content as well. Students vote on the best presentation, report, or product.

After presenting their completed task, others in the class can offer constructive feedback.

Several ways to do so include:

Two stars and a wish – two positive things about the presentation and one suggestion,
The 3, 2, 1, Formula – Three likes, Two suggestions, and One question.
Finally, feedback can be given based on things like the content of the presentation, use of visuals, eye contact, etc.

How to create your own TBL lesson

Here is a template for creating your own Task-Based Learning lesson or activity:

Design a ……………………………………
Create a …………………………………….
Produce a …………………………………..
Task: What would you like your students to design, create, or produce?
Plan: What specific instructions will you give your students for doing this task and what guidelines should they follow during their planning stage?
Report/Present: What do you want your students to report or present and how much time will you give them to explain or present their ideas?

There are many different TBL interpretations so don’t hesitate to make it your own.

An example of Task-Based Learning Activity

Jane Willis (1996) came up with A Framework for Task-Based Learning that includes coming up with tasks that revolve around a certain topic. This can be very useful for teachers looking for task ideas to engage their students during a lesson.

See the example to follow:

Topic: Travel

Listing : List three reasons why people love to travel.
Ordering, Sorting, and Classifying : Put pictures of different travel destinations in order from the most desired to the least desired destination. Sort travel destinations from the northern to the southern hemisphere. Classify destinations by languages people speak.
Comparing or Matching: Compare different countries. Match people to their country of origin.
Problem Solving: Think of three low-budget travel destinations.
Creative Task : Create a travel poster or find out about different countries and become an expert on a country that you would like to travel to in the future.
Share Personal Experiences : Share stories about past travel destinations. Write a poem about your favorite place and share it with the class.

6 Advantages of Task-Based Learning

Students are at the center of learning.
Students are working on something that is personal and relevant to them.
Students gain practice in collaborating with others and making group decisions.
Students spend a lot of time communicating.
Students take on responsibility for engaged learning .
TBL is enjoyable , motivating, and a great place to start for teachers thinking about incorporating more Project Based Learning at their schools or classrooms.

Task-Based Learning has many interpretations and you, the teacher, can adapt and make anything your own. Although TBL was originally developed with language teachers in mind, the core of every Task-Based Learning lesson, as the name suggests, is the task.

A Task-Based approach offers an alternative for teachers who are interested in creating a more student-centered environment in their classroom. In a task-based class, the lesson is based on the completion of a central task and its presentation.

TBL incorporates all 4C’s and is a great way to get students used to working on Project Based Learning (PBL) because it includes many of the same skills but, in a smaller, more digestible way.

Whereas PBL requires working on a project for an extended period, TBL can be done in one or two lessons and can be a good starting point for teaching students how to communicate, collaborate and work on presentations with others.

Willis D. and J. Willis (2007) Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Willis J. (1996) A Framework for Task-based Learning. Harlow: Longman Pearson Education

8 thoughts on “ Introduction to Task-Based Learning (TBL) ”

Hello, I do not use project-based learning techniques with my lessons. However, I have successfully used other methods and techniques.

Hi Mehmet, TBL or Task Based Learning is a very small PBL and can be a good place to start for teachers who are interested in incorporating more communication, collaboration, creativity, and collaboration between students in their classrooms.

Yes, I think that collaborative method and game-based learning develop students’ creativity. Of course, we can say that these also contribute to many more mental development of children.

Thanks to Sheila i met in’Florence in January 2018, I use Willis´s model to set up TBL in class…it does work very well.

Now I am a teacher trainer and I teach them how to set up this pedagogical method in class.

So glad you’ve found this approach useful to you in both your own classroom and in your training of other teachers. By the way, I have very fond memories of you in my teacher training classroom, Chantal. =)

I find it more helpful for teachers and useful to students

It’s great to have formulas.

I think all of my students have a delay, but i don´t care too much, everyone is different. Thanks to this method they can continue learning easier and faster. It´s very frecommended to follow a procces so you don´t get mix-up.

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What Is Task-Based Learning? A Guide to the Popular Teaching Method

Johanna kawasaki.

April 6, 2021

As global language teachers who want to stay up to date with recent developments in education (and also stay competitive when it comes to getting that dream job), we have to constantly evolve as educators and include modern ways of teaching in our lesson planning and our teaching methods. One such method that all ESL teachers should know about is task-based learning (TBL), also referred to as task-based language teaching. What is task-based learning? Read on if you’re interested in learning about this rewarding and fun teaching method!

If you’re new to teaching, you’ll want to get initial training and qualification with a TEFL certificate . You can explore our online TEFL courses to get started!

Why is task-based learning important?

During task-based learning, students solve tasks that are relevant and interesting to them. In order to solve the task, they need to use the target language they’re learning to communicate with their peers. They use authentic language instead of answering grammar or vocabulary questions about the language. Students — especially younger learners — don’t actually feel that they’re studying a language at that moment because they’re engrossed in the task they’re working on.
Task-based learning is especially conducive to group learning. Learning a language as a group is also a very important contributor to effective retention. Collaborating with others and becoming confident with the language within a group is a key step in acquiring that language. Also, receiving positive feedback from peers and teachers increases confidence and motivation to learn and to communicate with others.
Students’ understanding of the language also deepens because the realistic context in which they’re learning the language is relevant to their personal lives. It’s a good idea to ask your students about their hobbies and preferences at the beginning of a course so that you can include their interests in the tasks you set.
In addition to the benefits for students, solid knowledge of this method will also increase your job prospects as a teacher. Some job ads specifically ask for task-based language teaching experience!

A Bridge grad teaching English to young learners in Turkey

What is the task-based method?

The task-based teaching approach is one of many modern ESL teaching methods and focuses on setting a goal for students — this could be a report, a video, or a presentation — and then following three main steps to achieve that goal.

1. The pre-task

During this stage, which can take up a whole lesson if needed, the teacher introduces the task to the students and gets them motivated to solve it. Once everyone is engaged, the teacher should explain what is expected for the task.

Verbal explanations can be supported by an example from the teacher or by showing a previous student’s work. The teacher can then give further instructions if needed and offer advice on how to approach the task.

2. The task

This is the main stage of task-based learning, where students start working on the task, usually in groups or pairs. This stage is done in the target language so that students feel the need to use the language they want to learn in order to solve the task.

The teacher doesn’t usually join in the work process. Instead, he or she will monitor the students and offer hints if students really need support.

Find out about teaching English online to groups.

Learn about 8 ESL methodologies and get sample activities with the free guide to

Teaching english learners: popular esl learning methodologies, 3. the review (or post-task).

Once the students have completed the task and have something to present, the review stage, also known as the post-task, starts.

It’s a good idea to let students evaluate each other’s work and only offer a teacher review of frequently-made errors during the task. Peer correction could be carried out in the form of comments, feedback discussions, or a checklist with additional room for free commentary.

The review stage offers students the opportunity to reflect on their work and analyze it in order to improve their skills for the future.

BFITS Thailand teacher with a class of students

What is a task (vs. an activity)?

Task-based learning uses a lesson structure that incorporates different activities to solve a task. The task can span the length of an entire lesson or, if it’s project-based learning, it can take up several lessons to complete.

Essentially, the task is the big-picture assignment that students are trying to complete or solve, and the activities are the individual steps or exercises they take to achieve the task.

Examples of tasks include:

Creating a presentation
Making a video or short movie
Writing a piece of text, such as a newsletter article
Acting out a skit
Creating an original game that includes writing down the game rules, playing the game, and evaluating the game
Working out the solution to a practical problem, such as planning an upcoming trip or gathering missing information, like working out who started a rumor at school
Participating in a group debate or discussion, like arguing for a favorite competitor in a TV show

You can develop some great tasks using these fun ESL games and activities for young learners and teens.

Map out your unique career path with the free guide to

Self-guided professional development in elt, what is a task-based activity.

A task-based activity is a procedure in which students have to use the target language in order to achieve a specific outcome. The best TBL activities reflect real-life situations, so the students can see that the lesson is relevant to their own lives.

One of the main task-based learning advantages is that the activities allow students to use the language they know freely and exploratively as long as they are able to complete the overall task. Error correction can be done at the end of the lesson if necessary but not during the activity, so you encourage fluency and motivate students to use the language.

Learn more about correcting students’ mistakes with the Micro-credential Course in Error Correction in the EFL Classroom.

An example of a task-based activity could be to have each student draw a comic picture and explain the content and the inspiration behind it to the group. They then have to collaborate to put together a comic strip that includes each student’s picture, which is the main task (to create an original comic strip).

You can also use task-based language teaching and task-based activities in the online classroom. You can have students submit their work and you can share the results with the group. Then, everyone can work together on the main task that you previously set.

Learn more about creating materials for the EFL classroom!

Jhonny teaching origami online through a video camera

How can you apply a task-based approach to your teaching?

As an English teacher, you will not get around the “boring stuff,” such as grammar drills and vocabulary work. You also have to keep in mind that your students need to practice all four skills: writing, reading, speaking, and listening.

However, keeping the drills and language exercises to a necessary minimum and including more task-based learning in your curriculum can help students use the target language immediately and retain words and grammar points more effectively.

Here are two examples of task-based lesson plans:

In the physical classroom (with a group of 10-15 teenagers)

Greeting and warm-up: While the students are settling in, you can play a song that’s popular among your students. You can let them sing along if they know the song well!
Assign the task and give instructions: “Create your own music video in groups of 4-5 students using a song of your choice. Everybody has to have a role, from managing the camera to coming up with choreography to performing in the video. You have this lesson for planning and the next lesson for filming. We will watch all of the videos in the third lesson and give feedback to each other.”
Do the task: Let students gather in groups and start planning their video. Monitor their language and teamwork, and take notes. Make sure that everybody is engaged and involved and that there are no students who are just standing by.
Review: Before the lesson ends, give brief and motivating feedback to the students, and praise them for their efforts and their use of the language. Remind the students to be ready to start filming during the next lesson.

In the online classroom (with around 5 young learners)

Greeting and warm-up: Call out each student’s name and show each of them a card with a different word on it. It could be “dog,” “play,” “boy,” “girl,” “sunny,” etc. Have each student read their word out loud.
Assign the task and give instructions: “Create a short story that includes all of the words I gave you just now. You can decide the order of the words and how you use them in your story. You can add as many words and plot twists as you like. Each student has to contribute at least one sentence. Please start.”
Do the task: Watch the students on camera and take notes. If communication between them comes to a standstill, you can provide some support by asking questions, such as “What do you think could happen next?” or “Who can come up with the next idea?” or “Who wants to include their word next?” Your support should encourage the students to participate without giving them an idea straight away. Finally, have the students write down the story that they created. They can then take turns reading it out loud, one sentence at a time.
Review: Praise your students for their effort and teamwork, and applaud their story. Let the students have time for self-reflection and respond to questions such as “What did you do especially well today?” or “What would you like to improve for next time?”

If you’re not comfortable with task-based language teaching just yet, don’t let that discourage you. You can envision using this teaching method as your personal task. Set yourself a goal, try TBL out in your next lesson, and review your class afterward to reflect on what to improve and what went well!

In a teaching pinch? Try one of these last-minute ESL lesson plans that can be adapted to any class!

After backpacking Australia on a Working Holiday visa, Bridge graduate Johanna traveled to Japan for a year to teach English. She then moved to New Zealand for another two years before returning to her chosen home country, Japan, where she currently lives. Now, with more than eight years of professional English teaching experience, Johanna enjoys her expat life in Japan teaching teenagers at a private junior and senior high school, where she recently received tenure after only two years. When she’s not teaching, Johanna continues to travel regionally and explore new places.

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Teaching Resources

Glossary of Pedagogical Terms

Resource overview.

A quick reference and guide to pedagogical terms.

In this list you will find definitions for commonly used pedagogical terms. This list and the associated references and resources provide an overview of foundational concepts, teaching strategies, classroom structures, and philosophies. This page is meant as a quick reference and initial guide to these topics that may both answer a question and spark your curiosity to explore more deeply.

Active Learning : A teaching and learning approach that “engages students in the process of learning through activities and/or discussion in class, as opposed to passively listening to an expert. It emphasizes higher-order thinking and often involves group work.” (Freeman et.al. 2014)

Asynchronous Instruction: Asynchronous instruction is the idea that students learn similar material at different times and locations. The term is often associated with online learning where students complete readings, assignments, or activities at their own pace and at their own chosen time. This approach is particularly useful when students are spread across different time zones or may have limited access to technology.

Authentic Assessment: Assessments in which student learners demonstrate learning by applying their knowledge to authentic, complex, real-world tasks or simulations. Proponents of authentic assessment argue that these types of knowledge checks “help students rehearse for the complex ambiguities of the ‘game’ of adult and professional life” (Wiggins, 1990, p.1).

Further Resources:

Authentic Assessment . Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning, Indiana University Bloomington.
Wiggins, G. (1998). Ensuring authentic performance. Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student performance . Jossey-Bass, p. 21-42.

Backwards Design: A course design process that starts with instructors identifying student learning goals and then designing course content and assessments to help students achieve these goals. Rather than starting with exams or set textbooks backwards design argues that “one starts with the end—the desired results (goals or standards) and then derives the curriculum from the evidence of learning (performances) called for by the standard and the teaching needed to equip students to perform” (Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J., 1998)

Blended or Hybrid Course: Blended or hybrid courses are “classes in which some percentage of seat time has been reduced and replaced with online content and activities” (Darby & Lang 2019, p.xxix). These courses continue to meet in-person for some percentage of the class time but content, activities, assessments, and other ways for students to engage with content are delivered online. It is important to note that these courses are intentionally designed to utilize both in-person and online class time to achieve effective student learning.

Ko, S. and Rossen, S., (2017) Teaching Online A Practical Guide , Routledge

Bloom’s Taxonomy: Bloom’s Taxonomy is a cognitive framework of learning behaviors organized hierarchically in six categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. Bloom’s taxonomy is often used as a helpful tool to create learning objectives that help define and measure the learning experience for both student and instructor. (Anderson, 2001, Bloom, 1956, Krathwohl, 2002)

Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs): “An approach designed to help teachers find out what students are learning in the classroom and how well they are learning it. This approach is learner-centered, teacher-directed, mutually beneficial, formative, context-specific, ongoing, and firmly rooted in good practice”. Through using a CAT the instructor is able to gather formative feedback on students learning to inform future teaching. (Angelo & Cross 1993)

Classroom Climate: “The intellectual, social, emotional, and physical environments in which our students learn” (Ambrose et al., 2010, p. 170). Course climate is determined by factors like faculty-student interaction, the tone the instructor sets, course demographics, student-student interactions, and the range of perspectives represented in course content.

Cognitive Load: Cognitive load refers to the demands and limitations on working memory storage given the limited amount of information processing that can occur simultaneously in the verbal and the visual processing channels of the brain. (Mayer & Moreno 2003, Schnotz & Kürschner 2007)

Collaborative Learning : an umbrella term that covers many different methods in which students work together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. Collaborative learning is founded in the concept that learning and knowledge building is social and requires active engagement from students. (Smith & MacGregor 1992)

Constructivism: A theory of learning popularized in the twentieth century that argues that knowledge is actively constructed rather than passively absorbed by learners. Constructivists contend that when learners acquire new knowledge, it is through a dynamic process in which the learner recreates existing mental models, situating this new information in terms of what they already know. Social constructivists additionally recognize the role of social interaction (co-construction) and communication as key forces in learning. Foundational constructivists include John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and Jean Piaget. Constructivist pedagogical strategies are grounded in constructivist theory and often include opportunities for experiential learning, active exploration, student interaction, and reflection. Courses designed around this principle emphasize connections among course concepts and themes and support students in forming relationships between this new knowledge and what they already know. See also zone of proximal development and student-centered teaching .

Bruner, J.S. (1974). Toward a theory of instruction . Harvard UP.
Eyler, J. (2018). “Sociality” How humans learn: The science and stories behind effective college teaching . West Virginia P.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Harvard UP.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A pedagogical framework where instructors center students’ cultural identities as an important aspect of learning. Those committed to this framework deliberately work to make connections between course content and students’ lived experiences in order to prompt student involvement and motivation. Culturally responsive course design includes cooperative, student-centered instruction and diverse course readings from a variety of voices and perspectives, particularly those voices which may fall outside of traditional collegiate canons (Landson-Billings 2006).

Burnham, K. (2019) Culturally Responsive Teaching Strategies . Northeastern University Graduate Programs Blog
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). “But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy.” Theory into Practice 34 (3), 159-165.

Experiential Learning: Experiential learning is a process by which students develop knowledge and skills from direct experience, usually outside a traditional academic setting. Examples include: internships, study abroad, community-based learning, service learning, and research opportunities. The concept was introduced by David Kolb in 1984 and combines both a cognitive and behavioral approach to learning (Kolb 1984).

Further Resource:

Tran, M. (2016). Making a Case for Experiential Learning . Pearson.

Fixed Mindset: Mindset refers to the beliefs and attitudes held by a person and can affect their learning outcomes and achievement. Individuals with a fixed mindset (also referred to as entity theory) are outcomes-focused, don’t view intellectual ability as being malleable, and give up quickly on learning a new skill when learning becomes more challenging and difficult (Dweck, 2008, Dweck & Master 2008, Rattan et. Al. 2012, Yeager 2012). See also growth mindset.

Flipped Classroom: A flipped classroom is a teaching approach where students a first exposed to content before coming to a class session and then spend class time engaging more deeply with the ideas and concepts (Brame, 2013). This model encourages the use of active learning during in-person class sessions to allow students to explore concepts, solve problems, and discuss ideas with each other and the instructor.

Formative Assessment: Formative assessment is the process of providing feedback to students during the learning process. These are often low stakes activities that allow the instructor to check student work and provide feedback. An instructor writing comments and suggestions on a draft version of a paper is an example of formative assessment (Weimer 2013).

Growth Mindset: Mindset refers to the beliefs and attitudes held by a person and can affect their learning outcomes and achievement. Individuals with a growth mindset (also referred to as incremental theory) are process-focused, assess their performance relative to mastery of the material, and believe that intellectual ability is malleable. Having a growth mindset involves sustained effort toward learning new knowledge and reflection on past failures so that one can increase their knowledge and ability (Dweck, 2008, Dweck & Master 2008, Rattan et. Al. 2012, Yeager 2012). See also fixed mindset.

Hidden Curriculum: The hidden curriculum is a collection of unwritten norms, values, rules, and expectations that one must have awareness of in order to successfully navigate educational settings, but which remain unknown to those who have not been socialized into the dominant discourse (Smith, 2015, p.9). The hidden curriculum includes an understanding of school structures,resources, financial aid systems, and institutional rules, along with an awareness of cultural expectations for participating in class and communicating with peers and instructors. See also social belonging and transparent assignments .

Ostrove, J. & Long, S. (2007). “Social class and belonging: Implications for college adjustment.” The review of higher education 30 (4).
Hidden Curriculum . The Glossary of Education Reform.

Inclusive Teaching: a mode of teaching that intentionally designs course content and curricula to engage with students of diverse backgrounds, abilities, and lived experiences. The ultimate goal of inclusive teaching is to create a learning environment where all students feel valued and supported to succeed.

Inclusive Teaching Strategies . Center for Teaching Innovation, Cornell University.
Making excellence inclusive . Association of American Colleges and Universities. (n.d.)
Strategies for Inclusive Teaching . Center for Teaching and Learning, Washington University in St. Louis.

Inquiry-Based Learning: Inquiry-based learning is an umbrella term that includes pedagogical strategies such as problem-based learning and case-based learning that prioritize students exploring, thinking, asking, and answering content questions with peers to acquire new knowledge through a carefully designed activity. Such activities build in opportunities for students to authentically engage in and apply the scientific process as scientists rather than following a predetermined protocol (LaForce et.al., 2017, Yew & Goh 2016). See also problem-based learning, project-based learning.

Learning Management System (LMS): A Learning Management System is a platform that enables instructors to organize and distribute course materials in a digital format. While features may vary, a typical LMS allows instructors to communicate with students, share readings, create and collect assignments, assess student work and post grades. An LMS may be used to compliment a face-to-face course or for an entirely online course. Popular platforms include Canvas, Blackboard, and Moodle.

Learning Objective/Learning Goal/Learning Outcome: statements that articulate the knowledge and skills you want students to acquire by the end of the course or after completing a particular unit or assignment. Learning objectives help instructors to shape course content and assessments as well as increase transparency for students by clearly communicating expectations.

Articulate Your Learning Objectives . Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation, Carnegie Mellon University

Metacognition: Metacognition involves metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. Metacognitive knowledge is defined as thinking or having an awareness of one’s cognitive processes. Metacognitive regulation is the active monitoring of one’s cognition through planning (identifying appropriate learning strategies), monitoring (forming an awareness of one’s task performance) and evaluating (assessing and refining one’s learning through reflection) (Lai, 2011, Tanner, 2012).

Motivation: An individual’s “personal investment” in reaching a desired state or outcome as “seen in the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of what is done and expressed” (Maeher, M.L. & Meyer, H.A., 1997, p. 373). Research suggests that motivation plays a vital role in directing and sustaining student learning. The most motivated students see value in the task, believe that they can accomplish the task, and feel that they are in a supportive environment (Ambrose et al, 2010, p. 80).

Lazowski, R.A. & Hulleman, C.S. (2016). “Motivation interventions in education: A meta-analytic review.” Review of Educational Research 86 (2) 602-640.

Object-Based Learning (OBL): Object-based learning (OBL) is a teaching method whereby students engage with authentic or replica material objects in their learning in order to gain discipline-specific knowledge or to practice observational or practical skills that can be applied in various fields. “Objects” can include a number of different material items often housed in museums: specimens, works of art, architectural forms, relics, manuscripts and rare books, archival documents, or artifacts of various kinds. Research on OBL suggests that “objects can inspire, inform, fascinate and motivate learners at all stages of their education” (Jamieson, 2017, p. 12).

Chatterjee, H. J. (2016). Engaging the senses: Object-based learning in higher education . Routledge.

Pedagogy: Pedagogy is the method, practice and study of effective teaching. In order to be effective, instructors must have both subject-based knowledge and pedagogic knowledge and skills (Barkley & Major, 2016).

Problem-Based Learning: A form of student-centered teaching that focuses on having students work through open-ended problems to explore course material. Students are asked to define the problem as part of the process, research content outside of class time and iterate solutions to arrive at their final response (Nilson, L.B., 2016)

Project-Based Learning: A form of student-centered teaching that engages students with course content as they work through a complex project. These projects are typically real-world scenarios and multifaceted. Project-based learning encourages interdisciplinary conversations and groups work.

What is PBL?. Buck Institute for Education: PBL Works.

Retrieval Practice: Retrieval practice involves retrieving new knowledge from memory in order for durable retention in long-term memory. The process is supported by experiments which explore student’s recall of new material. Retrieval practice can take the form of frequent, low-stakes quizzes, or students may employ methods like flashcards for self-testing (Brown et.al. 2014, retrievalpractice.org ).

Scaffolding: A process by which instructors build on a student’s previous experience or knowledge by adding in specific timely support structures in the form of activities or assignments for students to master new knowledge or skills and achieve learning goals (Greening, 1998, Hmelo-Silver et.al. 2007). See also Zone of Proximal Development.

Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL): an approach to college-level teaching that frames teaching as a form of scholarly inquiry. Through engaging in SoTL instructors examine their students’ learning to innovate and engage in knowledge-sharing with colleagues (Huber 2013). Instructors who engage in SoTL as part of their teaching are encouraged to reflect on personal assumptions and curiosities about how their students learn. Then consider how to test the validity of these ideas. Examples of SoTL projects include exploring the impact of implementing a single active learning strategy, considering the impact of reflection on student learning, determining the impact of a complete course restructure (Poole 2018).

Social Belonging: Social belonging is a state when students feel welcomed and included into a community where they can engage freely and foster positive relationships with others (Walton & Cohen, 2011).

Summative Assessment: Summative assessment is the process of measuring a student’s learning at the conclusion of a course (or a portion of the course). Summative assessments are typically associated with grades and can take the form of quizzes, exams or papers.

Stereotype Threat: Stereotypes are negative generalizations about groups of people. When students are subtly or overtly made aware (primed) of these stereotypes while performing challenging academic tasks in domains that are important to them, students begin to underperform in these tasks. Anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype creates additional cognitive load that reduces the capacity of working memory in the brain (Aronson et.al. 1999, Steele & Aronson 1995).

Student-centered teaching : Instructor-center teaching refers to instructors teaching content solely through a passive approach such as lecturing while students listen and take notes with minimal interaction with other students. Student-centered teaching, however, consists of instructors using a wide range of pedagogical approaches for students to learn and actively engage with the course content by having students construct knowledge with peers through collaboration, discussion, group projects, and problem solving (Felder & Brent 1996, Freeman et.al. 2007, Handelsman et.al. 2007). See also inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, constructivism, zone of proximal development.

Student Engagement: Student engagement describes the ways in which students take part in the learning process and the development of their own knowledge. An increase in student engagement is thought to be linked to an increase in student learning. Student engagement is often tied to active learning techniques and student motivation (McVitty 2015).

Student Engagement . The Glossary of Education Reform.

Synchronous instruction: Synchronous instruction is the idea that students learn material at the same time. Examples of synchronous instruction might include lectures, discussions or collaborative activities. When applied to remote learning, students must be online at the same time. This approach can be disadvantageous if students are spread across different time zones or have limited access to technology.

Teaching Development Plan (TDP): a written document that helps instructors focus on teaching specific career goals. A TDP encourages instructors to set goals, and periodically reflect on both progress and barriers faced while working towards these goals.

Threshold Concept: Thresholds are crucial barriers in the learning process where students often get “stuck”. These ideas are essential to understanding a particular discipline and progress in the discipline can be blocked until that barrier to understanding has been overcome. Examples of discipline-based threshold concepts include deep time in geology or the idea of constructed narrative in history (Meyer & Land 2006, Pace 2017).

Transfer: A cognitive process by which a learner takes what they’ve learned in one context and successfully applies it to another. Transfer is often broken down into “near transfer” (transfer of knowledge to a similar task or context) and “far transfer” (transfer of knowledge to novel tasks or contexts). Given that a central purpose of education is for students to take what they have learned into other classes and then into their lives beyond school, this has long been a critical area of study in educational and educational psychology research (Perkins & Salomon 2012).

Transfer of Knowledge to New Contexts . Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning, Yale University
Building Knowledge Through Transfer . Center for Advancing Teaching and Learning Through Research, Northeastern University.

Transparent Assignment Design: An inclusive teaching practice first proposed by Mary-Ann Winkelmes and her instructional development and research team at UNLV, transparent assignments help students understand the purpose of the assessment, clearly describe the task and how it should be accomplished, and plainly define criteria for success. Assignment transparency has been shown to significantly boost student success in terms of academic confidence, sense of belonging, and metacognitive awareness of skill development (Winkelmes et al. 2016). See also social belonging and hidden curriculum.

Hutchins, P., Winkelmes, M. “Transparency in Leaching and Learning”. PDF of Powerpoint slides.
Winkelmes, M. et al. (2015). “Benefits (some unexpected) of transparently designed assignments.” National Teaching & Learning Forum 24 (4), 4-6.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL): Universal Design for Learning is a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Designing a course according to UDL principles is centered on the key concepts of: engagement, representation, and action & expression. These are sometimes summarized as the Why, What and How of learning (Murawski & Scott 2019, Tobin 2018, CAST .org).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This developmental zone stands between what the learner can already do on their own and what they cannot yet do. It is the range in which a learner is able to move from point A to point B with assistance from peers or an instructor; in other words, the zone in which learning takes place. The concept was originally described in the work of Soviet psychologist and social constructivist, Lev Vygotsky (Vygotsky 1978). See also constructivism and scaffolding .

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Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K.P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. 2nd Ed. Jossey Bass

Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. (1999). When White Men Can’t Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology . 35, 29-46.

Barkley, E.F. and C.H. Major (2016). Learning Assessment Techniques: a handbook for college faculty. Jossey Bass.

Bloom BS. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. Longmans.

Brame, C., (2013). Flipping the classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved 6/11/20 from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/flipping-the-classroom/.

Brown, Peter C., H.L Roediger, M.A. McDaniel (2014). Make it stick: the science of successful learning. Harvard University Press.

Darby, F., Lang, J.M. (2019). Small Teaching Online: Applying Learning Science in Online Classes . Jossey-Bass

Dweck, C. (2008). Mindsets and math/science achievement . Carnegie Foundation.

Dweck, C. S., & Master, A. (2008). “Self-theories motivate self-regulated learning”. In Schunk, D. H. Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 31–51). Taylor & Francis.

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Greening, T. (1998) Scaffolding for Success in Problem-Based Learning, Medical Education Online , 3(1), 4297

Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2007). Scientific teaching . Macmillan.

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Defining Pedagogic Tasks: Issues and Challenges

Cite this chapter.

Virginia Samuda 2 &
Martin Bygate 2

Part of the book series: Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics ((RPAL))

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At the beginning of this book, we proposed a set of general elements to describe what we broadly mean by ‘task’. We did so to provide an initial point of reference for talking about issues relating to the use of tasks in general education and human sciences research. As we further narrow the focus in our consideration of tasks as a pedagogic tool for second language learning, we revisit the construct of ‘task’ and attempt a more precise definition than the general elements we offered in Chapter 1. To this end, we:

Invite consideration of why a more precise definition might be desirable.

Explore some of the ways that task have been defined in the literature.

Highlight issues and challenges involved in arriving at an adequate task definition.

Offer a working definition of our own.

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Samuda, V., Bygate, M. (2008). Defining Pedagogic Tasks: Issues and Challenges. In: Tasks in Second Language Learning. Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230596429_6

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What is Task-based learning?

TBL (Task-based learning), or TBLT (Task-based language teaching) is an approach in which learning revolves around the completion of meaningful tasks. In the TBL approach, the main focus is the authentic use of language for genuine communication. In this post, we'll talk about what defines a task, the possible phases of a TBL lesson and give you an example of a TBL lesson.

Defining tasks

In order for us to understand TBL, we need to define what a task is. According to Willis, tasks can be real-life situations or have a pedagogical purpose. In both cases, a task should:

- provide opportunities for students to exchange information with a focus on meaning, not a specific form or pattern/structure;

- have a clear purpose: learners should know the outcome they are expected to produce when they finish performing the task. The outcome may vary. It might be making a YouTube video tutorial, finding a solution for a problem or writing an email requesting information;

- result in an outcome that can be shared with more people;

- relate to real world activities.

Phases of a TBL lesson

The framework of a TBL lesson may vary. It is usually composed of the following phases:

- Task (which can be sub-divided in different stages)

- Post-task

The pre-task phase of a TBL lesson is the moment when the teacher sets the task, contextualises the topic of the lesson, raises students’ interest and prepares learners to perform the task. When preparing students to perform a task, teachers might need to help students with both content and language. This can be done by activating students’ general knowledge on a certain topic and by helping students anticipate the type of language they will need to perform the task proposed. It is extremely important that students understand the objectives of the task during this phase.

In this stage of the TBL lesson, learners perform the task proposed. They are supposed to perform the task in small groups or pairs, and use their existing knowledge of language to express themselves in a spontaneous way. As the focus is communication, the teacher is not supposed to carry out extensive error correction at this stage, but should monitor and provide support.

When students finish performing the task, they need to plan how they are going to report it to the rest of the class or to other groups. They may rehearse and research the language necessary in order to share the outcome of what they had done.

Finally, students report the outcome of the task to other students.

The post-task stage is when students evaluate their performance. This might be done by comparing the outcome of their task to that of a proficient user of the language. It can also involve feedback provided by the teacher and subsequent practice of language items that emerged from the task. It is important to stress that form-focused language work should be in response to students’ production. That means that the teacher will not teach a grammar lesson and expect that learners use that specific structure while performing the task, neither should the teacher work on a pre-selected language item in this phase of the lesson. This makes the role of the teacher as a monitor extremely important in TBL.

The lesson below is a TBL lesson that I used with one of my Intermediate (CEFR B1) students. In this lesson plan, I’m describing the rationale behind my choices, the outcomes of the different phases of the lesson and how they might differ with other groups of students. You’ll notice that the breakdown of every phase is very detailed – “organising” and managing the completion of the task is an important role for the teacher in TBLT. If the teacher just sets a task and let students do it, they might not understand why they are doing what they are doing, feel lack of support and not perceive that they are learning.

A TBL lesson plan

TASK: Recommending places in São Paulo to a friend via a What’s App audio message

In the pre-task stage, students learned about the task and were asked to talk about popular places tourists could visit in their city, São Paulo. In order to generate interest and prepare students for the upcoming task, and depending on your group profile, you may give suggestions, use prompts to provide support to learners, ask students to carry out research, or even provide an input task to help students generate ideas. However, in the pre-task stage, the teacher is not supposed to pre-teach vocabulary or structures to students.

In order to help students carry out this task, you may ask them to:

- Create a mind map containing interesting places to be visited

- Suggest places and ask learners to share what they know about them / carry out research

In this phase of the lesson, students carry out the task. In this lesson, learners worked in groups of three during this stage. In order for the task to be completed successfully, it is the teacher’s role to break down the task and help learners get organised.

In this lesson, the task was delivered in three different phases:

Assessing: students were asked to go back to the list of places they had brainstormed and discuss how appealing they were. They were asked to list characteristics of these places and share why they might be appealing (or not) to tourists. Students were allowed to search online to gather as much information as possible.

Selecting: students were asked to compare the places and select the ones not to be missed by someone visiting São Paulo for the first time. They were expected to come up with a list of three places.

Recording the audio message: Students were asked to plan, rehearse and record an audio message suggesting places in the city.

Reporting: Students shared their audio messages with other groups and compare their recommendations.

Apart from giving instructions for the completion of the task, an important role the teacher should play during the task is to monitor learners’ production. In the post-task phase, I gave feedback on content and language that emerged during the task. Some aspects dealt with during feedback were:

- adjectives to describe places

- language to make comparisons

- language to make recommendations

In the post-task phase, it is important to provide students with the chance to practice the language that had emerged from the task.

The lesson described shows that, in TBL, tasks are a way to promote the use of authentic and genuine language with a focus on meaning and communication. When employing this approach to teaching, thus, teachers need to be prepared to design relevant and meaningful tasks, adopt a number of roles in the classroom and possess the linguistic competence to deal with emergent language and provide students with useful feedback and practice.

References:

Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. (2015). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3rd edition.

Willis, D. and Willis, J. Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Andreia Zakime is an Academic Coordinator at Cultura Inglesa São Paulo and one of the co-founders of What is ELT?

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Six types of task for TBL

This is the second in a series of four articles which will explore how to integrate a task-based approach into a typical textbook to maximise learning opportunities for your learners and to save teacher preparation time.

Multicultural group of students working on a science task together

Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL
From priming tasks and target tasks to language focus and grammar
Making time for tasks and still covering the syllabus

In this article we look at different types of task, and see which kinds are most often used in textbooks. I also suggest ways of adjusting them so that they stimulate more opportunities for meaning-focused interaction, and encourage learners to give longer responses. Finally I show how a graded set of tasks can be developed on a theme.

Identifying task-like activities

In my first article, Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL , we looked at six questions that gave us criteria to help us identify tasks and 'upgrade' potential task-like activities into tasks. So now we can identify activities in a textbook unit that could become tasks and form the basis of a task cycle with;

Pre-task activities,
Task - Planning - Report cycle,
Post-task activities as illustrated in the activity Planning a class night out .

However, tasks tend to come in various disguises. Some textbooks contain quite a few task-like activities, but very few use the word 'task' to describe them. They often come under section headings like: Speak out! Listening challenge, Think … then compare ideas, Reach a decision, With a partner …, In groups …, It's your turn, Questions and answers, Discuss ..., Tell your partner …, Writing, Reading or even under Grammar or Vocabulary .

For example, in Total English , a textbook for beginners, the activity 'Who is your favourite 20th Century icon? Tell your partner about the person.' comes at the end of a Grammar section on was / were which follows a reading activity.

There are several ways to turn this into a more rewarding task – as illustrated in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL – and you can also build up a graded set of tasks around this theme, as illustrated below.

Three types of task

Activities like the following generally have the potential to become effective tasks:

Listing and/or brainstorming

You can list people, places, things, actions, reasons, everyday problems, things to do in various circumstances, etc.

(1) In pairs, agree on a list of four or five people who were famous in the 20th century and give at least one reason for including each person.
(2) Can you remember your partner's busiest day? On your own, make a list of all the things he/she did. Then check with your partner. Were there any things you forgot?

Ordering and sorting

This can be sequencing, ranking or classifying.

(3) In pairs, look at your list of famous people. Which people are most likely to remain popular and become 20th century icons? Rank them from most popular to least popular, and be prepared to justify your order to another pair.
(4) Look at the four pictures. They are mixed up. Work in pairs. Put the four pictures in a sequence so that they tell a story. Prepare to tell your story to another pair.

You can match captions / texts / recorded extracts to pictures, short notes or headlines to longer texts, e.g. news items, etc.

(5) Read the texts – each is about a famous person but the person is not named – and look at the photos. Match each text to a photo. Then talk to your partner, and say how you were able to match them. Prepare to tell the class how you did it.
(6) Read the four headlines A to D. Match two pieces of information (given in 1-8 below) to each headline. Explain to your partner how you did this. What clues did you find? Did you both use the same clues?

Do you have any tasks like these in your textbooks? Sometimes textbooks use listing, ordering and matching activities at the beginnings of units, to introduce or revise useful words and phrases to prepare for the main topics. The outcomes are usually clear (e.g. a completed list, a set of matched information). But although they give valuable exposure to relevant topic-based language in the form of reading texts or recordings, they rarely stimulate much learner interaction as they stand.

Stimulating more interaction

All the examples I have given above are based on activities from real textbooks, but in each case I have added a further step or two to stimulate additional meaning-focused language use.

In 1 and 3 learners are asked to give reasons for or justify their decision.
In 2, 5 and 6 they do the tasks individually then explain to their partner how they did them.
In 3, 4 and 5 they are asked to prepare to explain how they did the task or tell their story to another pair or to the whole class.

Three more task types

Comparing: finding similarities and differences

Comparison tasks can be based on two quite similar texts or pictures (a classic example is 'Spot the Differences') or places or events, etc., that learners have experience of. Learners can also compare their own work with that of another learner or another pair or group.

Compare your list of possible 20th century icons with your partner's list. Did you have any people in common? Tell each other why you chose them. How many reasons did you both think of? Finally, combine your two lists, but keep it to five people.
Tell your picture story to another pair and listen to theirs. Compare stories and make a list of the main similarities and differences.

You will by now have noticed that many of these tasks carry on the same themes as in previous tasks. It is possible to build up a set of tasks on the same theme, each one arising out of the previous one. This is an excellent way to build learners' confidence – once they are familiar with the basic vocabulary for the topic, they can then do a range of activities recycling the topic language and using it for different purposes in a set of tasks.

Problem-solving

Textbooks often contain activities based on common problems – pollution, relationships, noisy neighbours and so on. But sometimes problem-solving tasks are over too quickly – learners agree on the first solution that comes to mind, using minimal language, e.g. 'Noisy neighbours? OK – so call police'. The instructions for the town centre traffic problem in the example below incorporate six or seven ways of generating richer interaction. Which of these ways might you use with your classes?

Think of a town centre where there is too much traffic. In pairs, think of three alternative solutions to this problem. List the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. Then decide which alternative would be the cheapest one, the most innovative one and the most environmentally friendly one. Report your decisions to another pair / group / the class, and discuss with them which solution would be the best one to put forward to the local government.

More complex tasks like comparing and problem-solving sometimes involve processes found in simpler tasks, like listing – see previous examples. The task above involves listing and quite a lot of comparing and evaluating.

Sharing personal experiences and story telling

Activities where learners are asked to recount their personal experiences and tell stories are valuable because they give learners a chance to speak for longer and in a more sustained way. And it is something we often do in real life. However, as we saw from the 'Grandparents' activity in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL , the instructions for activities where learners are encouraged to relate things from their personal lives are often rather vague and open-ended. In order to encourage richer interaction, we usually need to add a clear goal, make instructions more precise, and give clear completion points. See Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL which gives several ways to adjust activities like these.

So far we have identified and commented on six types of task that sometimes appear in textbooks or that can be adapted from task-like activities. We have seen that a set of tasks can be built up around one topic. We have looked at ways of stimulating richer learner interaction and giving more opportunities for genuine meaning-focused language use and maximising learner responses.

Other activities like quizzes, questionnaires and projects can also generate rich interaction if set up in such a way as to maximise learner participation. Tasks can also be based on reading and listening texts. For three examples of task-based lessons such as these that you can download, see http://www.willis-elt.co.uk/taskbased.html

In my next article, I will show how we can exploit textbook material to help structure a task sequence, incorporating pre-task activities, a task-cycle, leading on to language focus and form focused work.

The tasks in this article are based on activities from:

Face2face Pre-intermediate by Chris Redstone & Gillie Cunningham (Cambridge University Press 2005)
Total English Starter by Jonathan Bygrave (Pearson Longman 2007)