what is the importance of research in nigeria

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The Lancet Nigeria Commission: investing in health and the future of the nation

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Executive summary

Addressing multiple, intersecting disease burdens in a diverse population requires an equal balance between prevention and care, governance and prioritisation of health are the first places to start, leapfrogging the health system into the 21st century, financing health for all by rationalising contributions from insurance, out-of-pocket payments, donor funding, and taxes, section 1: introduction, section 2: evolution of a health system skewed away from population needs, pre-colonial community health systems provided broad access to holistic care, colonial health care services laid the foundation for today's inequitable health system.

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Independent Nigeria's recurring crises and governance challenges hinder efforts to improve population health

Section 3: an evolving burden of disease challenges a system focused on curative care

Burden of disease, demographic context.

Healthy life expectancy, morbidity, and mortality

Health is made within communities and at home: health creation and disease prevention

Key risk factors driving the burden of ill-health in nigeria.

Water, sanitation, handwashing, and nutrition

Environmental and cardiometabolic risk factors, section 4: health system reform—a pathway to universal health coverage, achievements and flaws of the current health system.

Rationalisation of policy making at federal, state, and local government levels

Centralisation, localisation, rationalisation of links between public and private sectors, strengthen public sector primarily but leverage private sector for specific tasks, strategies for human resources and ameliorating brain drain, digitisation, digital data for health, digital data for decision making, improved links with communities and traditional institutions, section 5: investing in the future of nigeria—health for wealth, prosperity, macroeconomics, and health.

The investment case

Value for money.

Political benefits

Ensuring accountability and mitigating against corruption, funding the health system, funding sources and their shortcomings.

Options for revenue mobilisation

Using pooling and insurance systems to manage revenues and reduce the burden on poor nigerians, using strategic health purchasing to increase efficiency, section 6: conclusions and recommendations, declaration of interests, acknowledgments, supplementary material (1), uncited references, article metrics, related infographics.

Health in Nigeria

Nigeria is projected to become one of the most populous countries in the world, and is rightly taking its place on the world stage. The Lancet Nigeria Commission tells the story of the country through a health lens, and details recommendations that will enable the country and its people to fulfil their potential, and seize the opportunity ahead.

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Doing Research in Nigeria

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Name of the Asset |  Doing Research in Nigeria: bridging the research gap and improving development policies

Type of Asset | Research report Date |  September 2020

Achieving the global sustainable development agenda at the national level requires significant domestic research capacity. This will help to ensure the production of scientific evidence that is based on critical analyses of each country’s social, development and policy challenges. Such evidence will help to inform contextually relevant actions and reforms for economic growth, development and welfare. However, detailed system-wide data on the social science research (SSR) system is scarce in sub-Saharan Africa, and this hinders effective policymaking. While international agencies like the UNESCO Institute of Statistics routinely gather data, such efforts still rely on locally generated information.

In Nigeria, unfortunately, there have been no systematic efforts to generate data on the domestic Social Science Research (SSR) system since independence. To date, only one national survey of research and development has been carried out in Nigeria (in 2007); it used instruments and methods based on the well-known Frascati Manual of Europe. However, the survey aggregates the entire research landscape and pays no particular attention to social science. Hence, useful indicators such as human capital, research production, infrastructure, diffusion and uptake of SSR cannot be obtained from this survey. The Doing Research Assessment (DRA) in Nigeria was aimed at systematically understanding how critical factors of the national research system impact its capacity to produce, diffuse and use SSR for its social and economic development. This assessment was conducted by the National Centre for Technology Management (NACETEM) research team during the course of 2019.

The research process employs a mixed method approach that involved three inter-related stages: a context analysis, a systematic mapping of stakeholders and a comprehensive data collection exercise. The context analysis provides a critical discussion of the environment for SSR in Nigeria, with a focus on the political, international, economic and historical dimensions. The stakeholder mapping was used to identify all stakeholders that engage in activities connected to the production, diffusion and use/uptake of SSR in Nigeria. For ease of analysis, the research actors are categorized into higher education institutions (HEIs), government and funding agencies (GFAs), private sector (PS) entities, and civil society organizations (CSOs).

The primary insight is the sheer scale of the Nigerian SSR system. This study identified almost 2,000 organizations that engage in SSR production, diffusion, uptake or any combination of components including 170 HEIs, 75 GFAs, 65 PS organizations and 1,515 CSOs. The data collection combines a desk review, bibliometric analysis, key informant interviews and a set of three surveys – one each for researchers, administrators and policymakers. In all, we interviewed 17 key informants (5 from HEIs and another 3 from research institutes; 3 from GFAs; 3 from CSOs; and 3 from PS organizations) and surveyed 805 individuals from 130 organizations across the country, including 585 researchers, 145 administrators and 75 policymakers. The response rate was 90 percent at the institutional level and 85 percent at the individual level.

• Abiodun Egbetokun , Principal Investigator ( [email protected] )
• Adedayo Olofinyehun , Project Manager ( [email protected] )
• Aderonke Ayo-Lawal ( [email protected] )
• Omolayo Oluwatope ( [email protected] )
• Maruf Sanni ( [email protected] )
• Utieyineshola Yusuff ( [email protected] )

Country and/or Region |  Nigeria Name of the Program |  GDN’s Doing Research for Measuring the Production, Diffusion, and Use of Social Science Research

Funder(s) |  The current phase of the Doing Research program is being funded by GDN’s core funds. The Doing Research pilot phase was generously supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Agence Française de Développement, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development, and Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation for US$785,000 from 2014-2016.

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• 19 February 2020

The next chapter for African genomics

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Graduate students at an infectious-disease lab in Ede, Nigeria, use the gene-editing tool CRISPR to detect Lassa virus in blood samples. Credit: Amy Maxmen

In the affluent, beach-side neighbourhoods of Lagos, finance and technology entrepreneurs mingle with investors at art openings and chic restaurants. Now biotech is entering the scene. Thirty-four-year-old Abasi Ene-Obong has been traversing the globe for the past six months, trying to draw investors and collaborators into a venture called 54Gene. Named to reflect the 54 countries in Africa, the genetics company aims to build the continent’s largest biobank, with backing from Silicon Valley venture firms such as Y Combinator and Fifty Years. The first step in that effort is a study, launched earlier this month, to sequence and analyse the genomes of 100,000 Nigerians.

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Nature 578 , 350-354 (2020)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00454-1

Sarfo, F. S. et al. Stroke 49 , 1116–1122 (2018).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Siddle, K. J. et al. N. Engl. J. Med. 379 , 1745–1753 (2018).

International Monetary Fund. Nigeria: Staff Report for the 2019 Article IV Consultation (IMF, 2019).

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Ramachandran, V., Obado-Joel, J., Fatai, R., Masood, J. S. & Blessing, O. The New Economy of Africa: Opportunities for Nigeria’s Emerging Technology Sector (Center for Global Development, 2019).

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Current Trends in Scientific Research in Nigeria

Introduction, a. defining scientific research.

Scientific research is the systematic investigation of phenomena to discover new knowledge, improve existing theories, and solve practical problems.

B. Significance in Nigeria

Scientific research is vital for Nigeria’s development. It drives innovation, enhances healthcare, boosts agriculture, and fosters economic growth.

C. Purpose of the Blog Post

This post sheds light on the current trends in scientific research within Nigeria.

Explore the cutting-edge topics, methodologies, and their impact on the nation’s progress.

Overview of Scientific Research in Nigeria

A. history and development of scientific research in nigeria.

In Nigeria, scientific research has evolved significantly over the years, reflecting the country’s commitment to advancing knowledge and innovation. During the pre-independence era, research activities were primarily carried out by foreign institutions and individuals who were interested in exploring Nigeria’s rich biodiversity and resources.

With the attainment of independence in 1960, Nigeria placed a greater emphasis on scientific research as a means of national development and self-reliance. The establishment of academic research institutions such as universities and research centers marked the beginning of a more structured approach to scientific inquiry.

Over the years, Nigeria has made significant strides in various scientific disciplines, including agriculture, medicine, engineering, and technology. The country has produced talented scientists and researchers who have contributed to global knowledge and have made remarkable discoveries.

B. Key institutions and organizations involved

Several key institutions and organizations play a vital role in promoting and conducting scientific research in Nigeria:

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR): NIMR focuses on medical research and has contributed to the development of vaccines and treatment methods for diseases prevalent in Nigeria.
• The National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI): NASENI is responsible for promoting and coordinating research and development efforts in relevant scientific and engineering disciplines.
• The Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR): NIFOR conducts research to improve oil palm cultivation techniques, enhance oil palm products, and provide scientific guidance to farmers and stakeholders in the sector.
• The Nigerian Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD): NIPRD is involved in the development and promotion of pharmaceutical products through research and collaboration with pharmaceutical companies.
• The Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST): NIFST conducts research on food processing, preservation, and quality control, contributing to Nigeria’s agrifood industry.
• The Nigerian Academy of Science (NAS): NAS acts as a national advisory body on scientific matters, providing expert opinions and recommendations to the government and other stakeholders.

C. Funding sources and support available for scientific research in Nigeria

Scientific research in Nigeria is supported by various funding sources and initiatives:

• Government Funding: The Nigerian government allocates a significant portion of its budget to research and development projects, with a focus on priority areas such as health, agriculture, energy, and technology.
• Research Grants: Both national and international organizations offer research grants to scientists and researchers in Nigeria, enabling them to pursue innovative projects and contribute to scientific knowledge.
• Private Sector Support: Private companies and corporations provide funding and collaborate with research institutions to address industry-specific challenges and enhance technological advancements.
• International Partnerships: Nigeria collaborates with international organizations and foreign institutions to access funding and expertise, enabling researchers to participate in global research projects and exchange knowledge.
• Academic Institutions: Universities and research centers often have their funding sources, which may include donations, endowments, and revenue generated from intellectual property rights or consultancy services.

In fact, Nigeria has made significant progress in scientific research, with a rich history and development spanning several decades. The country’s key institutions and organizations, along with various funding sources, play a crucial role in advancing scientific knowledge, promoting innovation, and addressing Nigeria’s specific challenges and needs.

Read: Leading Companies in Photonics in Nigeria

Technology Adoption and Innovation in Scientific Research

In the ever-evolving landscape of scientific research in Nigeria, technology has become an indispensable force propelling advancements and reshaping methodologies. Let’s delve into the role of technology, recent trends in its adoption, and the profound impact it has on research outcomes.

A. The Pivotal Role of Technology

• Enhanced Data Collection: Technology has revolutionized data acquisition, enabling researchers to gather vast datasets quickly and accurately.
• Innovative Analytical Tools: Cutting-edge software and algorithms facilitate complex data analysis, unveiling hidden patterns and insights.
• Collaborative Platforms: Virtual collaboration tools bridge geographical gaps, fostering interdisciplinary research and knowledge exchange.

B. Recent Trends in Technology Adoption

• High-Performance Computing: Researchers are harnessing the power of supercomputers for simulations and data-intensive computations.
• Machine Learning and AI: Machine learning algorithms assist in data interpretation, prediction, and decision-making across diverse scientific fields.
• Blockchain in Research: Blockchain technology ensures data integrity and transparency, crucial in maintaining research credibility.
• IoT and Sensor Networks: Real-time data collection through IoT devices aids environmental monitoring, agriculture, and healthcare research.

C. Impact on Research Outcomes

• Accelerated Discoveries: Technology expedites research timelines, leading to faster scientific breakthroughs.
• Precision Medicine: Genomic technologies enable tailored healthcare solutions, improving treatment efficacy.
• Environmental Conservation: Remote sensing technologies track deforestation and climate changes, aiding conservation efforts.
• Enhanced Communication: The integration of technology facilitates the dissemination of research findings to a wider audience.

In short, the symbiotic relationship between technology and scientific research in Nigeria continues to evolve. As researchers embrace innovation, the nation’s scientific community stands poised to make increasingly impactful contributions to global knowledge and progress.

Read: Photonics Applications Specialist: Job Outlook

Interdisciplinary Research Collaborations

A. importance of interdisciplinary research in nigeria.

• Interdisciplinary research promotes collaboration between different scientific fields in Nigeria.
• It allows researchers to combine their expertise to tackle complex problems.
• Nigeria can benefit from interdisciplinary research by finding innovative solutions to societal challenges.
• It encourages the sharing of knowledge and resources among researchers from diverse backgrounds.
• Interdisciplinary research in Nigeria can lead to transformative discoveries and advancements.

B. Successful interdisciplinary research projects in Nigeria

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research collaborated with the Nigerian Institute of Oceanography and Marine Research to investigate the health impacts of oil pollution on coastal communities.
• The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control partnered with the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training to assess the safety of genetically modified crops in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Conservation Foundation worked with the University of Lagos to study the effects of deforestation on biodiversity in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research collaborated with the Center for Renewable Energy and Action on Climate Change to explore the economic benefits of renewable energy adoption.
• The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control collaborated with the African Centre of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Diseases to enhance the country’s capacity for genomic surveillance of infectious diseases.

C. Benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration in scientific research

1. benefits:.

• Interdisciplinary collaboration brings together diverse perspectives and expertise, leading to more comprehensive research outcomes.
• It encourages creativity and innovation by combining ideas and methodologies from different fields.
• Interdisciplinary research promotes the application of scientific findings in various sectors, contributing to societal development.
• It helps researchers address complex problems that cannot be solved by a single discipline alone.
• Interdisciplinary collaboration fosters networking and cooperation among researchers, enhancing future research opportunities.

2. Challenges:

• Interdisciplinary research requires effective communication and understanding between researchers from different disciplines.
• It can involve conflicts in integrating different methodologies and approaches.
• Funding for interdisciplinary research projects may be limited due to the traditional focus on single-discipline funding.
• Interdisciplinary collaborations may face resistance from established academic structures that prioritize disciplinary boundaries.
• Achieving a balance between depth of knowledge and breadth of interdisciplinary understanding can be challenging.

In essence, interdisciplinary research collaborations play a crucial role in advancing scientific research in Nigeria. The importance of interdisciplinary research lies in its ability to foster collaboration, promote knowledge sharing, and drive innovation. Successful interdisciplinary projects in Nigeria have addressed diverse issues ranging from health impacts to environmental conservation. Although interdisciplinary collaboration brings numerous benefits, it also faces challenges such as communication barriers and funding limitations. To overcome these challenges, Nigerian researchers and institutions should promote a culture of interdisciplinary collaboration and advocate for increased support and recognition for such research endeavors.

Transform Your Career in Nigeria

Discover unmatched expertise with our personalized Career Consulting service. Navigate Nigeria’s job market with a strategy tailored just for you.

Read: Becoming a Physicist in Nigeria: A Comprehensive Guide

Priority Research Areas in Nigeria

A. key scientific research areas currently prioritized in nigeria.

• Energy and Environment
• Agriculture and Food Security
• Health and Medicine
• Information and Communication Technology
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development

In recent years, Nigeria has prioritized several key scientific research areas to accelerate development and address significant challenges. These areas encompass various sectors, including energy and environment, agriculture and food security, health and medicine, information and communication technology, mining and solid minerals development, and climate change and sustainable development.

B. The Importance and Relevance of These Research Areas to the Nigerian Context

• Energy and Environment:  Nigeria, as a major oil-producing country, recognizes the importance of diversifying its energy resources and mitigating the environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction. Research in renewable energy sources and environmental conservation strategies is vital to ensure sustainable development.
• Agriculture and Food Security:  Agriculture is a significant contributor to Nigeria’s economy, employing millions of people. Prioritizing research in this area aims to improve crop yield, enhance irrigation techniques, and develop new agricultural practices to ensure food security for the growing population.
• Health and Medicine:  Promoting research in health and medicine is crucial to tackle prevalent diseases, including malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, and improve healthcare infrastructure across the country. It also facilitates the development of indigenous pharmaceuticals and advancements in medical technology.
• Information and Communication Technology:  Given Nigeria’s emerging technology sector, prioritizing research in ICT is essential. This area promotes digital innovation, e-governance, and enhances connectivity, enabling socio-economic growth and bridging the digital divide.
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development:  Nigeria possesses vast mineral resources, and investing in research in this field allows for sustainable exploration, exploitation, and value addition to minerals. It contributes to economic diversification, job creation, and improved mining practices.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development:  With increasing concerns over climate change, Nigeria recognizes the need to address environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development. Research in this area focuses on climate change adaptation, mitigation strategies, and sustainable natural resource management.

C. Notable Research Advancements in These Priority Areas

Nigeria has actively advanced research in key areas:

• Energy and Environment: Researchers developed solar and wind power, reducing fossil fuel dependence. Sustainable waste management and biodiversity conservation efforts were implemented.
• Agriculture and Food Security: Research yielded drought-resistant crops, innovative irrigation, and modern farming techniques. Training programs boosted agricultural productivity.
• Health and Medicine: Nigerian scientists and healthcare professionals researched vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments for diseases. They enhanced primary healthcare, established medical research institutions, and trained personnel.
• Information and Communication Technology: Nigeria excelled in mobile tech, software development, and cybersecurity. Innovative mobile apps improved education, healthcare, and financial services access.
• Mining and Solid Minerals: Researchers mapped mineral resources, promoted sustainable mining, and attracted foreign investments for technology transfer.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Nigeria researched climate change impacts, developed adaptation strategies, and integrated resilience into policies. Renewable energy deployment and public awareness initiatives were undertaken.

In general, Nigeria’s prioritized research areas foster economic growth, food security, healthcare, and environmental conservation. These active endeavors demonstrate Nigeria’s commitment to scientific research and innovation.

Read: The State of Physics Careers in Nigeria: An Overview

Promoting Open Access and Data Sharing

A. the concept of open access in scientific research.

Open access refers to the principle of making scientific research freely available to the public.

B. Efforts Made to Promote Open Access and Data Sharing in Nigeria

• The Nigerian government has prioritized open access, establishing policies to support it.
• Research institutions and universities have embraced open access by establishing open repositories.
• Collaboration with international organizations has facilitated open access initiatives in Nigeria.
• Funding agencies are encouraging researchers to publish their work in open access journals

C. Addressing the Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Open Access Policies

• Increased visibility and accessibility of research for Nigeria and the global scientific community.
• Facilitation of interdisciplinary research by providing open platforms for sharing data.
• Greater potential for collaboration and networking among researchers worldwide.
• Acceleration of scientific progress and innovation through the ease of accessing research findings.
• Enhanced reputation of Nigerian researchers and institutions due to increased dissemination of their work.

Challenges:

• Limited awareness and understanding of the concept of open access among researchers.
• Insufficient technical infrastructure and resources to support open access initiatives.
• Resistance from publishers and commercial journals due to financial implications.
• The need for capacity building to facilitate the implementation of open access policies.

Emerging Trends and Future Prospects

A. emerging trends and advancements in scientific research in nigeria.

• Increase in interdisciplinary research collaborations among different scientific fields.
• Rapid growth in the use of advanced technologies and innovative methodologies.
• Focus on addressing local challenges and finding practical solutions to improve livelihoods.
• Emphasis on sustainable development and environmentally-friendly research practices.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices into scientific research.

B. Potential future directions and prospects for scientific research in Nigeria

• Continued growth in research funding to support cutting-edge scientific studies.
• Expansion of research infrastructure and establishment of state-of-the-art scientific facilities.
• Promotion of international collaborations and partnerships for knowledge sharing.
• Enhancement of science education and training programs to develop a skilled workforce.
• Increased focus on commercialization and entrepreneurship in scientific research.

C. Initiatives and strategies for further driving scientific research in the country

Scientific research in Nigeria undergoes a transformative phase, marked by:

• Growing interdisciplinary collaboration.
• Advancements in technology and research methodologies.
• A shift toward addressing local challenges, especially in healthcare, agriculture, and energy sectors.
• Commitment to sustainable practices, including waste reduction and renewable resource usage.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge.
• Focus on future prospects: Increased research funding, expanded infrastructure, and global collaborations.
• Enhanced science education and workforce development.
• Strategic initiatives: Research grants, specialized centers, scientific culture promotion, intellectual property protection, and mentorship programs.

In summary, Nigeria’s scientific research evolves with interdisciplinary cooperation, local problem-solving, sustainability, and indigenous knowledge integration. The nation looks forward to increased funding, global partnerships, and talent development to further its scientific contributions.

Learn More: International Collaborations: Nigeria’s Science Community

This blog post discussed the current trends in scientific research in Nigeria.

It highlighted the importance of these trends and their impact on the scientific community in Nigeria.

To all the researchers and the scientific community in Nigeria, keep pushing boundaries and making discoveries. Your work is invaluable, and it contributes to the growth and development of the nation. Stay determined and continue to make Nigeria proud.

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July 22, 2021

The imperative of research in Nigeria: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic

by David Bradley, Inderscience

The industrialized world has responded in disparate ways to the emergence of the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, and the ensuing pandemic it caused, COVID-19. Technology was repursosed to track and monitor the disease and research and development focused on the development of vaccines and investigated pharmaceutical and physical interventions to treat the disease.

New research published in the International Journal of Technological Learning, Innovation and Development has looked at the response from a developing nation, Nigeria. This nation has, not unlike many others with fewer resources and less money to spare, not yet contributed in a significant way to R&D into the coronavirus and our response to the pandemic . Through a case study , the team has gleaned lessons that might be applied to lessen the crisis in Nigeria of the next pandemic.

Morolake Bolaji, John O. Adeoti, and Joshua Adeyemi Afolabi of the Innovation and Technology Policy Department at the Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), in Ojoo, Ibadan, Nigeria, explain that Nigeria may have the capability but has remained a "laggard in R&D spending as well as R&D activities, particularly in the health sector ." One might suggest that the term "developing nation" can only be applied if that country is active in the areas that lead to development.

The COVID-19 pandemic has, the team suggests, reinforced "the imperative for Nigeria to significantly and urgently increase its R&D spending not only to combat subsequent health challenges but also to facilitate rapid structural transformation and economic development ." A country that fails to rise to such crises and challenges by boosting its Sciencebase will inevitably continue to suffer the worst consequences of such a pandemic.

The team has five recommendations. The first is that the government must increase the nation's R&D budget. Secondly, health infrastructure needs considerable improvement. The third recommendation is that public R&D needs to integrate more effectively with the private sector to improve technological results. Fourthly, the government must improve the transfer of the currently limited R&D "outputs" to the end-users. Finally, education in science and technology must be given a boost through governmental scholarships that focus on problem-solving rather than promotion.

Provided by Inderscience

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• Open access
• Published: 24 October 2015

Role and use of evidence in policymaking: an analysis of case studies from the health sector in Nigeria

• Obinna Onwujekwe 1 , 6 ,
• Nkoli Uguru 2 , 6 ,
• Giuliano Russo 3 ,
• Enyi Etiaba 1 , 6 ,
• Chinyere Mbachu 4 , 6 ,
• Tolib Mirzoev 5 &
• Benjamin Uzochukwu 4 , 6  

Health Research Policy and Systems volume  13 , Article number:  46 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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Health policymaking is a complex process and analysing the role of evidence is still an evolving area in many low- and middle-income countries. Where evidence is used, it is greatly affected by cognitive and institutional features of the policy process. This paper examines the role of different types of evidence in health policy development in Nigeria.

The role of evidence was compared between three case studies representing different health policies, namely the (1) integrated maternal neonatal and child health strategy (IMNCH); (2) oral health (OH) policy; and (3) human resource for health (HRH) policy. The data was collected using document reviews and 31 in-depth interviews with key policy actors. Framework Approach was used to analyse the data, aided by NVivo 10 software.

Most respondents perceived evidence to be factual and concrete to support a decision. Evidence was used more if it was perceived to be context-specific, accessible and timely. Low-cost high-impact evidence, such as the Lancet series, was reported to have been used in drafting the IMNCH policy. In the OH and HRH policies, informal evidence such as experts’ experiences and opinions, were reported to have been useful in the policy drafting stage. Both formal and informal evidence were mentioned in the HRH and OH policies, while the development of the IMNCH was revealed to have been informed mainly by more formal evidence. Overall, respondents suggested that formal evidence, such as survey reports and research publications, were most useful in the agenda-setting stage to identify the need for the policy and thus initiating the policy development process. International and local evidence were used to establish the need for a policy and develop policy, and less to develop policy implementation options.

Recognition of the value of different evidence types, combined with structures for generating and using evidence, are likely to enhance evidence-informed health policy development in Nigeria and other similar contexts.

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There is an increasing recognition that strong and effective health systems that are evidence-informed in their operations are necessary to achieve continued improvement in health outcomes in an efficient and equitable manner [ 1 , 2 ]. The incorporation of relevant high-quality research evidence into the health policy process has been outlined as a key strategy for improving health systems worldwide [ 3 – 5 ]. Thus, evidence-informed decision making has been promoted to aid policy development in most countries [ 6 , 7 ].

The capability of health systems in low- and middle-income countries to deliver services to the people is severely constrained by polices that are borne out of trial and error rather than evidence [ 8 , 9 ]. However, policymaking processes do not necessary always follow the clear and straightforward logic of scientific enterprise [ 10 ] and some authors have stated that, when evidence is used by policymakers, it is greatly affected by cognitive and institutional features of the political process [ 11 , 12 ]. Health policymaking, a central element of sustainable health systems, involves a complex process of interactions between policy actors with different powers, interests and agendas [ 13 ]. Therefore, ensuring the uptake of evidence for more effective policy and practice is a challenge for health systems strengthening in most low- and middle-income countries [ 14 ].

Evidence has been described in the literature as “ what constitutes actual or asserted facts planned for use in support of a conclusion ” [ 15 ]. Evidence from research can improve the health policy process, by identifying new issues for the policy agenda, informing decisions about policy content and direction, and evaluating the impact of policy [ 16 – 19 ]. While some authors regard evidence as mostly scientifically-driven facts, others argue that evidence can be formal (such as published research or program monitoring and evaluation) or informal (such as personal experiences, received wisdom and opinions) depending on its process of generation [ 14 , 20 , 21 ].

Analysing the role of evidence in health policymaking is still an evolving area of research. Whereas the focus of previous studies on evidence-informed policymaking has been on the extent to which policies are informed by evidence, there is limited understanding of the relative value of different types of evidence in health policy decisions across different policies and varied contexts.

This paper compares the contributions of different types of evidence in the development of three health policies in Nigeria and explores the contextual influences which affected the utilization of evidence in developing these policies. The results of our study should be of interest and relevance to the key health policy actors (such as policymakers, academia, civil society organizations) who are involved in developing and implementing health policies in Nigeria and similar contexts, and are interested in better understanding and ultimately enhancing the use of evidence in health policy development.

The Nigerian health system and policymaking

Nigeria operates a three-tier level of healthcare – tertiary, secondary and primary. Provision of healthcare in Nigeria is a concurrent responsibility of the three tiers of government – federal, state and local government. However, because Nigeria operates a mixed economy, private providers of healthcare have a visible role to play in health services delivery [ 22 , 23 ]. The operational levels have different but sometimes overlapping roles and responsibilities. The Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) provides tertiary healthcare services as well as technical support to the state and local government health authorities. They also regulate the activities of the lower levels. The State Ministries of Health are statutorily responsible for the provision of secondary healthcare services and the provision of technical support for and regulation of primary healthcare services, while the local governments are responsible for the implementation of primary healthcare and provision of services at the primary care level [ 24 ].

In response to the very low ranking of the Nigerian health system in the year 2000 [ 25 ], the country embarked on a Health Sector Reform Program (HSRP) in 2003. The Federal Ministry of Health and development partners such as WHO, UNICEF, Partnership for Transforming Health Systems (DFID), and the United Nations Population Fund, among others, initiated and developed different policies and strategies which aim to strengthen and improve the functioning of the health system to become more equitable and efficient in service delivery and consequently improve health outcomes. Three of the key policies and strategies that were developed are the Human Resources for Health (HRH) policy, the Oral Health (OH) policy and the Integrated Maternal, Newborn and Child Health (IMNCH) strategy. These were the subjects of investigation of the present study, which sought to understand the role of evidence in policymaking.

In Nigeria, the FMOH is responsible for policymaking and health policies are made at that level by senior government officials with significant contributions from partners and stakeholders in the public and private sectors. Although the State Ministries of Health can make policies at their level, most polices at the state level are adapted from the national level policies and made to fit the state’s context. A formal process of problem identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, and implementation is used in the policymaking process. However, these stages are usually interwoven with a series of advocacy meetings, stakeholder consultations, and lobbying. The National council on health and the Federal Executive Council must give the final approval on all health-related policies before they can be implemented [ 24 ].

The recognition of the usefulness of evidence in policymaking for effective implementation of the country’s HSRP evidence-based policymaking initiatives were established. One such example is the Nigerian Evidence-Based Health Initiative which was developed to inform a plan to support a fair and effective primary healthcare system in Nigeria. However, this program’s focus on only two States limited the uptake of research to inform policy in other parts of the country [ 26 ].

Amidst political influence of the ruling party in policymaking, evidence from situation analysis gets used in agenda setting [ 27 ]. However, the use of research evidence to inform policy in clinical decision-making in teaching hospitals and in policy implementation in Nigeria has been observed to be very minimal or completely absent [ 26 , 28 ].

This section gives an overview of the study design and background, describing the conceptual framework used in the study and giving a brief description of the three policies and the data collection and analytical methods used.

The conceptual framework (Figure  1 ) has informed the identification of the key information areas for the data collection and analysis in this study. Different types of evidence exist in the literature and they can be grouped into formal and informal [ 29 ]. For the purpose of this study, evidence was defined as information – both formal and informal – that can be used in supporting (or otherwise) a conclusion or indicating whether an assumption or proposition is true or valid. Examples of formal evidence include peer-reviewed research reports and health management information system and statistical data, whereas examples of informal evidence include expert knowledge and experiences as well as outcomes of stakeholder consultations. Evidence can be used in decisions either directly (e.g. by indicating effectiveness of a particular intervention within the same or similar context) or indirectly (e.g. by affecting actors’ values and experiences).

Framework for assessing the role of evidence in policy development.

As shown in Figure  1 , the role of evidence in health policies is perceived as interplay between evidence (i.e. the process of evidence generation, dissemination, and use) and policy processes (agenda setting, development and implementation) [ 20 ]. The policy actors determine this interplay through their involvement in evidence and policy processes, affected by their agendas and practices [ 17 , 18 ]. This interplay is affected by the nature of the policy issue (for example, whether the issue is politically and socially sensitive and/or controversial), the contents of a specific policy (i.e. policy options proposed), and the types and characteristics of evidence available around a specific policy [ 4 , 18 ]. All of the above occurs within the wider context, which includes different national and international influences [ 17 ].

Study setting

The study was undertaken in Nigeria, a West African country with a population of about 170 million, and conducted at the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, where all national policies are made.

Study design

This was a retrospective cross-sectional qualitative study using a case study approach. Three cases were selected and used to analyse the role of evidence for health policy development in Nigeria. In this study, a case was defined as a health policy or strategy developed for an area of healthcare services (e.g. non-communicable disease, maternal health, and child health) or a component of the health system (e.g. human resources for health).

The cases were purposively selected based on the general criteria that the policy and/or strategy was established within 10 years from the time of the study to enhance recall, and that it was an area of interest to the Ministry of Health. In addition, the policies and/or strategies were selected to represent the following three areas: (1) an area of international prominence (IMNCH strategy, 2007); (2) a neglected area (OH policy, 2012); and (3) an aspect/component of the health system (HRH policy, 2006).

Description of the policies

Imnch strategy.

The Nigerian IMNCH strategy was developed and launched in 2007. Its overall objective is to reduce maternal, newborn, and child morbidity and mortality in line with the millennium development goals (MDGs) 4 and 5. The IMNCH policy was largely a product of a global agenda to improve maternal and child health in the MDGs. The political transition to democracy, accompanied by an improvement in the budgetary allocation to health, provided a window of opportunity to scale-up high impact interventions in maternal and child health in the country [ 30 ]. The strategy was developed within the framework of the National HSRP to address the most common conditions responsible for maternal and under-5 mortality in Nigeria. Its development was supported by a Partnership Grant from the Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health in 2007, in which the FMOH was tasked with the responsibility of coordinating actions and partners to accelerate the reduction in maternal, newborn and child mortality and involved academics, health professionals, civil society organizations (CSOs), and development partners in the policy development processes.

After several failed attempts in the 1990’s and early 2000’s at developing and obtaining final approval for an OH policy, a National OH Policy was developed and finally adopted in November 2012 in Nigeria. It is intended to achieve optimal OH for at least 50 % of Nigerians through five strategies namely by (1) sustainable awareness creation, (2) early detection and prompt treatment of oral diseases using evidence-based interventions, (3) strategic research, (4) workforce development, and (5) co-ordination of OH activities including institutionalization of modern dental practices. The policy document was developed through multi-stakeholder participation of experts in OH, WHO, and medical practitioners in the three tiers of the health system [ 31 ].

The HRH policy document was first developed in 2006 by a variety of stakeholders in health made up of public and private sector players following world health reports devoted to addressing the global HRH crisis [ 31 ]. An ongoing national health sector reform program also emphasized the poor maternal mortality ratio and under-five mortality rate as well as other anomalies in the health system and was geared towards improving the country’s poor health indices. The policymakers using the national reform and the positive political climate as a platform were motivated to develop the policy to address a number of key challenges in HRH, including planning, recruitment, production, utilization, and retention of health workers.

Data collection methods

The data was collected between December 2012 and July 2013. Two methods were used to collect data for this study: document review and in-depth interviews.

Document review

Document reviews were used to identify the different evidence available around a particular policy and inform the development of the initial list of respondents for the study. A total of 27 documents were reviewed, covering all three case studies. Documents included in the review were key policy statements, policy dissemination documents, published consultancy reports, published and unpublished monitoring and evaluation reports, academic publications, research reports, policy briefs, grey literature (e.g. consultancy reports), and health statistics including health management information system reports and country-level publications on websites of the relevant agencies (e.g. FMOH, WHO). In order to retrieve relevant national documents and academic publications, an extensive search was carried out on academic databases (such as PubMed and Cochrane), institution/organization libraries and search websites (such as Google scholar), using key words such as Nigerian health policy, human resources for health policy, integrated maternal and child health policy, and oral health policy. Expert recommendations and citation pearling were also used to identify and retrieve documents.

Once the documents were identified, the executive summary/abstract of each document was reviewed to identify its relevance to the particular policy. The inclusion of documents in the review was guided by relevance of the evidence to the policy issues as perceived by researchers and availability of the document during the timing of the policy development. Relevant information on extent and types of evidence used in policy development and key contextual influences on evidence use was extracted from the documents and summarized according to the key components in the conceptual framework (evidence process and use, context, actors, and policy process). A standardized proforma with these key components was used for the extraction, which was structured around the four components of the conceptual framework.

In-depth interviews

In-depth interviews were conducted to explore perceptions of usefulness of evidence in policy/strategy development and the key contextual influences on evidence use for policymaking. Detailed information was collected from policy actors such as government policymakers, representatives of CSOs, health workers, development partners, and academics. The list of respondents for interviews was developed using purposive sampling (based on their role in developing health policies and their availability for interview) and informed by review of key policy documents around each of the three case studies, researchers’ knowledge of the actors’ involvement in policy development, and initial meetings with the key stakeholders (as part of consultation in selecting a policy within each case study). The list of respondents was continuously updated throughout data collection using the snowballing technique.

The interviews were guided by a semi-structured question guide focused on respondents’ role and the understanding and perceptions of the role of different types of evidence in health policy development. Most interviews were face-to-face and, in situations where respondents could not be reached within the interview period, telephone interviews were conducted (two interviews in the OH policy case study and one in the IMNCH case study were conducted by telephone). The respondents were assured of confidentiality and anonymity during recruitment. This enabled the respondents to give extensive information on their knowledge, experiences and perceptions on role of evidence in policy formulation.

A total of nine policy actors were interviewed for OH, 10 for IMNCH, and 12 for HRH. A summary of participant types and number interviewed is presented in Table  1 . New participants were interviewed until saturation was reached for the respective case studies. Where key actors were not available for interviewing (e.g. retired), their immediate colleagues possessing knowledge of the policy development were approached. All interviews were audio-recorded with informed consent obtained prior to the interview (Table  1 ).

Data analysis

A thematic framework analysis was performed, which included stages of familiarization with the data, coding, indexing and charting data, and mapping and interpretation [ 32 ]. The findings from the various documents reviewed were synthesized based on the thematic areas and analyzed. All audio recorded interviews were transcribed by the interviewers. A coding tree was used to code the transcriptions according to relevant thematic areas, such as (1) respondents perception of evidence, (2) types and characteristics of evidence, (3) role of different types of evidence, (4) actors, and (5) contextual influences on evidence and policy processes. NVivo10 software was used to aid the data coding and analysis.

Ethical considerations

Ethics approval for this study was obtained from the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital ethical review board, before the commencement of the in-depth interviews. Each respondent also gave informed consent before the in-depth interviews were undertaken.

This section gives a brief description of the policy/strategy development context for the three case studies and highlights similarities and differences between the three case studies in the policy development process. It also presents the types of evidence used in policy/strategy development and the influences of context, respondents’ understanding of the concept, and robustness of evidence on evidence use in development of the policies and strategy.

Context of policy/strategy development

Based on responses obtained from our interviews, we observed that the three policies were developed amidst different national and international issues. The IMNCH and HRH policies were already familiar and well discussed topics, with previous policies developed. However, the OH policy was regarded as neglected with uncoordinated and haphazard attempts at previous policy developments, which failed after the first OH policy in 1995. All three policies generally followed a formal policy development process which consisted of agenda setting, information gathering, policy formulation, approval, and review and validation. Our respondents’, however, reported that this process did not follow a linear fashion but was iterative and interspersed with stages of lobbying and advocacy, especially with the HRH policy (Table  2 ).

Analysis of interview data revealed that various factors influenced the different stages of policy development. Three factors influenced the agenda setting stage of all three policies: global as well as national considerations and policy framework. The national policy guideline/framework influenced the drafting of IMNCH and HRH policy documents, though this is not the case in the OH policy formulation, where real-life experiences affected the policy drafting and revision stages. In all three policies, and in the OH policy case in particular, both national and global considerations had substantial influences on the probability of policy being approved. The international clamour for the need of an OH policy by global actors, for example by WHO, and the persistence of one specific national actor, are all factors that were found to have influenced the likelihood of policy approval.

Respondents’ perception of evidence

Across the three case studies, participants perceived evidence processes as a formal process of gathering information to inform decisions. However, different stakeholders appeared to adopt diverse and often conflicting views of what constitutes evidence, as their understanding of the concept seemed to reflect their personal experiences. We did not identify a single dominant common definition of ‘evidence’, but rather a plurality of interpretations, but this was not highlighted as an issue of concern by the interviewees. In some cases, perceptions of evidence were broad and in others it was linked synonymously with research, albeit with less certainty about the meaning of the word ‘evidence’. Most respondents gave a definition of evidence which is synonymous with research.

“ My understanding of evidence use is having concrete data that has been collected through a process that is considered legitimate and you give reference to that data. It could have been a survey. ” (HRH, CSO; OH, Academia)

However, a minority of respondents also gave a broader definition of evidence, suggesting that this can also include informal types:

“ Evidence is like a mere idea that have been harvested and shows where you are, and informs what you intend to subsequently do. In this context, it should prove there is a situation .” (HRH, Policymaker)

Types of evidence used

Ten types of evidence were perceived by the respondents as being used to develop policies within all three case studies. These are survey reports, research publications, national and international policy documents, systemic review reports of programs, proceedings from expert consultation meetings, experience and opinions of experts and policymakers, epidemiological reports and documents on lessons learned from international experiences, and best practice guidelines (Table  3 ).

Both formal and informal types of evidence informed the development of the three policies, though our analysis shows that the formal types of evidence played a larger role. The quote below depicts this statement.

“ Basically, evidence from program implementation, research findings, program reports, I think this are for me the most important. ” (IMNCH, Policymaker)

As shown in Table  3 , formal evidence (national and international) played a more prominent role in the development of all three policies. Informal evidence seemed to play a role in HRH and OH policies more than in IMNCH policy.

Amongst all evidence used, the one considered to be the most important by the majority of respondents across the three cases were findings from national surveys (such as baseline surveys or situation analysis) because they were context-specific, timely and gave a true picture of what was on the ground. Most respondents felt that the methodological rigor, availability of survey reports, relevance, and ease of obtaining the information from these surveys were also what made it especially useful.

“ The evidences we had were based on research activities and surveys which are national in their scope, and then …… they were quite extensive and rigorous ” (OH, Academia).

However, there were a few disparate views as regards labelling this singular type of evidence as the most important, because according to the respondents, “ all types of evidence generated complements each other, we cannot say one is the best ” (HRH, Academia). For example, in the HRH case study, evidence obtained from opinions and experiences of experts in the field were considered important by some respondents, especially the policymakers. They claimed that this form of evidence helped to augment the findings from the baseline survey. In IMNCH, published research findings, especially those from a series of publications showing evidence of high impact interventions for maternal and child survival published in the Lancet [ 33 ], were important by giving an insight into best practices for maternal and child health issues and added to the body of evidence in developing the policy.

“ For me the ones I thought were most important was evidence of effectiveness of high impact intervention from the Bellagio [Lancet [ 33 ]] survival series ” (IMNCH, Policymaker).

An analysis of the various responses highlight the use of a wide breath of evidence-informed policies, which included both formal and informal evidence. The nature of methodology (rigorous or not) informed the likelihood of evidence.

“ Evidence am looking more at empirical data….empirical data. But beyond looking at empirical data, I am also interested in the process of gathering that data. ” (DP, CSO)

In response to our questions on what evidence the respondents consider as robust, we documented eight characteristics of robust evidence as perceived by our respondents, namely quality/accuracy, credibility, relevance, accessibility, comprehensiveness, context specificity, of national scale, and representativeness of evidence. The following quotes substantiate these findings:

“ My understanding of evidence use is having concrete data that has been collected through a process that is considered legitimate and you give reference to that data. It could have been a survey. I mean it’s a fact that figures don’t lie. --- figures about distribution, retention, rural–urban disparity and all that stuff. ” (HRH, CSO)

“ If you are writing on a national document then you use data that is representative of the whole country .” (IMNCH, Policymaker).

The issue of comprehensiveness of evidence was emphasized only by the respondents in the IMNCH case study and evidence being of national scale and representativeness was emphasized in the development of the OH policy. The importance of all other characteristics of evidence was shared by respondents across the three policies.

Role played by different types of evidence in policy development across case studies

The various types of evidence mentioned previously informed different stages of the policy development process in the three case studies (Table  4 ). Survey reports and research publications informed the policy development process across the case studies. These survey reports and research publications were most useful in the agenda setting stage because they provided the push needed to bring the topic on the policy agenda thus initiating the first stage of the policy development process.

“ Well, the survey found many discrepancies in the ratio of health workforce in relation to all health sectors. It was terrible. When the data was presented we shuddered. When we saw from literature review what other countries are doing, we were challenged to do something ” (HRH, Policymaker)

In addition, journal publications from the Lancet series in IMNCH policy [ 33 ] and WHO publications in OH policy [ 34 ] were used to a large extent in the problem definition stage and helped buttress the data obtained from the surveys. They provided data on best practices for the OH and IMNCH policies, which helped in development of the policy (Table  4 ).

On the other hand, reports from expert consultations were perceived by the respondents as useful in the policy drafting stage because they now built on the information provided by the surveys to improve the body of evidence used. The expert consultations brought in a practical aspect to the policy development because most of the evidence generated from this source was based on hands-on experience of the stakeholders, which added value to the evidence obtained, as illustrated below:

“ What happened was there was a stakeholders meeting and we got a lot of information from them, sat down together to brain storm on the information and that was what was utilized in the final writing ” (OH, Policymaker)

The situation analysis and survey reports were useful to different actors for different reasons: to the academics, these types of evidence gave a credible idea of the situation and provided guidance to the direction of their technical input; the government policymakers found them useful in providing information that was representative of the country and context appropriate; to the development partners, they provided useful information to guide decisions of resource allocation and technical input; and, finally, the CSO’s found these useful for providing evidence of current health situations in terms of figures and numbers that would enable more effective lobbying.

Key influences on evidence use

We found that global considerations, existing policy guidelines, and burden of health needs were the major contextual influences which helped set the agenda for the three health policies. The utilization of evidence in each of these three policies was influenced by different factors from these three broad areas (Table  5 ).

A general global push towards evidence-based practice was identified by the respondents as an important contextual influence which increased the use of evidence in all three policies. For example, the international push for the development of the OH policy was predominantly from WHO, which had directed its African region countries to all develop an OH policy as part of their regional OH strategy [ 35 ].

“ The WHO directive and with Nigeria being a major stake holder in the WHO, I think that facilitated the approval for developing of Oral Health Policy in the country. ” (OH, Academia).

All four previous attempts at formulating an OH policy in Nigeria in the past three decades were unsuccessful. The first three attempts (between 1984 and 1999) failed because of an unfavourable political environment during military rule, whereas a fourth attempt at developing an OH policy (2004–2009) failed due to non-observance of national stipulations for policy development [ 36 ].

Multiple evidence types were used in the development of three health policies in Nigeria. Policymakers and other actors, though guided by their perceptions of robust evidence to make decisions on which evidence to use, were also perceived importance of experiences and expert opinions possibly giving room for a ‘non-scientific’ angle to policymaking. Eight characteristics of robust evidence were perceived to be important by policy actors in all policies. These qualities were attributed to nationally-generated evidence, such as reports of surveys, and other datasets generated through government machinery. Context was an important determinant of perceived characteristic of robust evidence. The fact that methodological rigor was mentioned by some policymakers as a characteristic of robust evidence suggests that these individuals have some understanding of what constitutes methodological rigor and this degree of understanding reflects their background.

Different stakeholders seemed to adopt diverse definitions of what represents evidence – possibly influenced by their personal experiences in policy development. Although the respondents never identified this lack of a shared definition of evidence as an issue of concern, it is clear that an unresolved tension existed among our informants, as people kept referring to different concepts and attributes of what represents evidence for and about policy.

The actors’ understandings of evidence appear also to have influenced which evidence was used. The fact that most respondents defined evidence as a formal entity where legitimate and concrete data are collected and processed could be a reflection of why formal types of evidence (research and survey data and reports, etc.) were used most frequently in setting the agenda. For example, in the OH and HRH case studies, the use of situation analysis reports, survey reports, and published research confirmed this potential relationship between perception of what constitutes evidence and its use. This is also true for IMNCH, where evidence of best practices from international publications constituted the main form of evidence used. In addition, it could be that the actors’ beliefs had been pre-shaped by the public policymaking structure in the country which seems to rely on documented evidence to be used to either make a point or influence a policy decision. This finding is similar to what Sutcliffe and Court reported [ 37 ], namely that actors’ ideologies, principles and political orientation ultimately affect how and what types of evidence get used for policymaking. This became more obvious in our study because the perception of the government policymakers, “ who were the drivers of the three policies ”, was that stakeholders’ experiences were a very important form of evidence which led to its use in the OH and HRH policy formulation.

In literature, evidence-informed policy was defined as public policy informed by rigorously tested established evidence in the design, implementation and refinement of policy [ 38 ]. Our study shows that a wide breadth of evidence was used in formulating the three policies in Nigeria. However, more emphasis was laid on the formal type of evidence and most evidence was used at the agenda-setting and less during the development stage. This could be due to the fact that Nigeria has a documented process for policy development as shown by the different strategic frameworks and the Nigerian constitution (FMOH) in addition to the international drive towards evidence-based policymaking.

Similar types of evidence were generated to formulate the three policies. This suggests that the same type of evidence is generally accessible to those formulating policies in the country or there is limited knowledge about the various types of evidence that are available and possibly gathered for policymaking. There may therefore be a need to enlighten those involved in policymaking about what constitutes evidence so as to broaden the scope of types of evidence used for future policymaking.

Evidence use for policy agenda setting appeared to be extensive and adequate in all three cases and the situation analysis and survey reports were useful to different actors for different reasons. Our study revealed that evidence was used as input to decision-making for technical experts, conceptualizing the situation for government policymakers, implementing partners and CSOs, and persuading actors to buy in for certain policies, all of which was achieved by CSO lobbying. This is similar to findings by Shadish et al. [ 39 ], who also revealed that evidence could be used for three purposes – instrumental (input to decisions making), conceptual (helping towards a better understanding of the subject matter), and strategic (to persuade other actors as the means to attain a specific goal).

Formal evidence, such as research findings and data sets, were used in agenda setting, because of their context relevance, rigour and timeliness. The ease and availability of obtaining information from these sources of evidence also played a role in their use for policy/strategy making. According to Shaxson [ 40 ], some key characteristics of evidence which influence whether it is used include quality/accuracy, credibility, relevance, and accessibility to policymakers. In addition to these characteristics, comprehensiveness, context relevance, and representativeness of evidence were considered characteristics of robust evidence in our study.

Formal evidence, like research and survey and program reports, were used in policy development, while there was little or no mention of other types of formal evidence such as health management information system data. This could be attributed to their perceived unavailability. Thus, only evidence considered reliable or accessible and truly reflecting which evidence the policy actors felt was the best was used to establish the need for policy development.

The informal type of evidence used, which was the expert consultation meetings, emphasized the fact that evidence was subject to what the actors considered important and relevant and also what they perceived evidence to be. The fact that some respondents – such as influential government policymakers – felt this form of evidence was very important, was synonymous with its use in the drafting and writing up of the policy, even though other stakeholders, like academics and CSO’s, felt less strongly about this form of evidence. However, this use of evidence is consistent with what was reported in previous studies [ 20 ], which observed that apart from formal documented evidence from data and research, experience of various stakeholders and decision makers can also be influential in the policy development process.

Contextual factors influenced policy formulation and evidence use for the three case studies, albeit differently. For instance, the interests of international partners and agencies gave the initial push for prioritization of maternal and child health on the national agenda, and the subsequent development of the IMNCH strategy. Whereas the need to develop an OH policy was underscored by the absence of a strategic framework for OH services and previous failed attempts at policy formulation, rather than an international push. National surveys and empirical studies that clearly identified health problems, policy gaps and bottlenecks, and made recommendations of strategies or guidelines for implementation, provided useful guidance during the process of drafting policy contents. A central influence on evidence process across case studies in Nigeria was the recognition of the global movement on evidence-based best practices. Although somewhat different in its nature to international treaties such as the MDGs, this movement triggered a national awareness of the need to develop comprehensive, evidence-informed policies and plans of action. Though similar to what was found in India as part of the wider study, evidence use is being progressively recognized as a highly contingent process that varies across settings and time [ 41 , 42 ]. In this sense, context can be seen as a potential determinant of the use of evidence.

The reliance on international evidence for providing new policy ideas, in this case, may be linked to the strategic role policy actors (e.g. WHO) played in identifying and disseminating evidence for informing the policy process. A wider range of influences were identified at the agenda-setting stage than during policy formulation and approval. This is similar to what other authors found [ 20 ]. Similar to the above, multiple influences, often comprising international and national factors, can ensure that a policy is finally approved, as was the case with the successful approval of OH policy following several previous attempts. On the other hand, fewer factors affected policy formulation, though a clear guideline or a framework can mainstream policy processes and can potentially provide a framework for ensuring actors’ participation and possibly addressing any discourse (such as different views of robust evidence).

Our findings suggest that recognition of the value of formal and informal types of evidence, combined with structures for generating and using evidence, are likely to facilitate generation of evidence for policy development. Evidence that is easily accessible to policymakers and is in a user-friendly form, will most likely be used in policy development. Furthermore, involvement of technical experts (including researchers) who have an appreciation for evidence and its use in policymaking, also contributes to evidence-based policymaking.

Several potential implications for policy and practice emerge from our study, which should be of relevance to the policy actors interested in improving the role of evidence in health policymaking in Nigeria and other similar contexts. First, different policy actors need to be aware of the understanding of the concept of evidence by others, including their preferences for robust evidence. In the longer term, different policy actors can work towards developing a shared understanding of robust evidence. Secondly, the knowledge of different types of evidence and their importance would enhance the use of both formal and informal types of evidence which should improve the quality of evidence generated for policy. Thirdly, a decentralized consultative approach using a variety of mechanisms to obtain wider participation and input from a range of stakeholders at all levels, including national and sub-national, government and non-government, as well as the public groups. These mechanisms include consultations with multi-stakeholder groups and expert working group meetings.

A possible limitation of the study is that we relied mostly on the understanding of the role of evidence as perceived by the policy actors as this creates the potential for recall bias. Whilst we attempted to look for signs of evidence use in policy documents (e.g. references to specific studies), the systematic comparison of available versus the used evidence was outside the scope of this study.

Different types of evidence were used to formulate policy in the three case studies. Most evidence generated was used to set the agenda and policy discourse. Apart from the IMNCH strategy where evidence was used to select interventions, we did not find any indication that suggest evidence was used to determine policy options (‘evidence on policy’) for the OH and HRH policies.

Relevance, comprehensiveness, availability, context-appropriateness, affordability, methodological rigor, timeliness, and representation of country situation were characteristics of robust evidence as perceived by policymakers. Although it is unlikely that these characteristics of robust evidence would be met at the same time, research organizations and academics in the country are challenged with the need to generate evidence that meet these criteria. Policymakers and influencers, on the other hand, need to exercise some judgment about priorities and preferences in the selection of available evidence for policymaking.

Availability of supporting data

Study instruments and data are available on request from the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgements

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant Agreement No. 261389. The authors also wish to acknowledge respondents who participated in the qualitative interviews.

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Obinna Onwujekwe & Enyi Etiaba

Department of Preventive Dentistry, College of Medicine University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria

Nkoli Uguru

Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), The Nova University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

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Department of Community Medicine, College of Medicine University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria

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Nuffield Centre for International Health and Development, Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

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OO, BU, TM, and GR conceived the study and NU, EE, CM, OO, and BU performed it. NU, CM, EE, GR, OO, and BU carried out the analysis. OO and NU wrote the first draft. All authors revised and agreed on the final draft. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Onwujekwe, O., Uguru, N., Russo, G. et al. Role and use of evidence in policymaking: an analysis of case studies from the health sector in Nigeria. Health Res Policy Sys 13 , 46 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-015-0049-0

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Irb: ethics & human research, research ethics committees in nigeria: a survey of operations, functions, and needs.

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Heightened global commitment to research on diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria has led to increased research over the past decade in many African countries, including Nigeria. This increase in research has led to debates about the ethics of health research in resource-poor or developing countries and has drawn further attention to existing ethical review processes. This study was undertaken to describe and benchmark the operational and organizational structures as well as functions of research ethics committees (RECs) in Nigeria. The article explores the factors that contribute to REC conformity with the Nigerian National Ethics Code and World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for RECs. Data were collected using a self-administered, semistructured questionnaire. A descriptive analysis was conducted, and Fisher’s exact tests performed to assess associations between selected REC characteristics and the degree of conformity to applicable national and international requirements. Eighty percent of RECs (20 out of 25) had standard operating procedures, while 68% (17 out of 25) met at least quarterly and provided final review determinations within three months. RECs with committee chairs who had prior bioethics training were more likely to have operations conforming to the WHO and the Nigerian ethics guidelines. Overall, this study suggests that there is variability in the degree to which operations and functions of RECs in Nigeria conform to the Nigerian National Code and WHO guidelines.

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Heightened global commitment to research on diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria has led to increased research over the past decade in many African countries, including Nigeria. This increased investment by the international community is driven by global as well as regional declarations and commitments that reflect a desire to help reduce disease burden while fostering development in these countries. 1 This increase in research has led to debates about the ethics of health research in resource-poor or developing countries and has drawn further attention to existing ethical review processes. 2 Some of these discussions have focused on the creation and application of both international and local guidelines, on codes of practice or laws on ethics of research, and on the role of national, local, and institutional research ethics committees (RECs) in the protection system for human research participants. 3

While the majority of literature on RECs has emerged from high-income contexts, 4 a growing literature from and about RECs in developing countries has more recently surfaced. Topics explored in these studies are varied and include descriptive studies on the structure and functions of RECs, 5 diversity in REC reviews, 6 multicenter ethics review, 7 and both descriptive and mode studies on evaluation of RECs. 8 Studies examining RECs in developing countries describe structural and operational elements of RECs at national and regional levels. Country-specific studies include those describing REC activities in Egypt, Tanzania, Turkey, Mexico, Sudan, Granada, El Salvador, South Africa, and Uganda. 9 For example, Sleem et al. report that RECs in Egypt comprised, on average, 10.3 members, who were mostly physicians; none of the RECs had a formal operating budget; and the absence of national research ethics guidelines and lack of ongoing training in research ethics for REC members were identified as some of the major challenges. 10 Ikingura et al. found that RECs in Tanzania had members with various educational backgrounds, with about 52% (n = 66) of members being biomedical scientists. 11 Arda discusses new guidelines that mandated establishment of RECs in Turkey. He argues that the guidelines could help foster protection of the rights of research participants through the application of the informed-consent process in research studies, 12 and Caniza et al. describe how an iterative and interactive process of capacity building led to the establishment of three institutional RECs and a national REC in El Salvador. 13 Studies from Uganda and Nigeria describe processes for developing national research ethics guidelines, 14 while other studies have focused on RECs in Latin America, Europe, Southeast Asia, and Africa. 15 A recent review of the literature showed that the efficiency of RECs in most African countries is challenged by lack of membership diversity, scarcity of resources, insufficient training of members, inadequate capacity to review and monitor studies, and lack of national ethics guidelines and accreditation. 16

Of the available literature on African RECs, there are only a few published studies empirically evaluating RECs’ operations in Nigeria. Falusi et al. describe the process of establishing the REC at the University College Hospital in Ibadan, Nigeria. 17 Eyelade et al. retrospectively audited protocols submitted to an REC from 2002 to 2007 to determine the profile of the lead investigators, sources of funding for research, and the duration of review in the same institution. 18 And Agunloye et al. describe the structure and operations of three RECs from three different geopolitical zones in Nigeria. 19 An unpublished study of eight RECs from Southwest Nigeria, which looked at training and resource needs, is reported to have found that most RECs needed more opportunities for training, especially on risk-benefit assessment and for new committee members. 20 Research examining committee structures, functions, and needs is important for regulatory and quality-improvement purposes. Information from such studies within a given country could further help national regulatory bodies better oversee and strengthen the capacity of RECs and could help future researchers and funding institutions better understand the ethical review systems in such countries.

Survey of Nigerian RECs

This study was undertaken with the goal of describing and benchmarking the operational and organizational structures as well as functions of RECs in Nigeria. We intended to identify unaddressed needs, describe structures and operations, and evaluate factors that contribute to higher conformity of RECs in Nigeria with the country’s National Code of Health Research Ethics and the World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) Operational Guidelines for Ethics Committees that Review Biomedical Research. 21

RECs in teaching hospitals, medical centers, other private hospitals, and research institutes throughout Nigeria were identified through the database of registered (active or inactive) ethics committees of the U.S. Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) and the Nigeria National Health Research Ethics Committee (NHREC). 22 Unregistered RECs were also identified through the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) and the Office of the Director of Health Sciences from the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (FMS&T). RECs or their host institutions were contacted via email, and those that consented to participate were included in this study.

A cross-sectional survey design was adopted using a primarily closed-ended semistructured questionnaire adapted from a similar study. 23 The questionnaire had 81 items broadly categorized into five domains to capture information on REC membership, operations, training, resources, and attitudes or perceptions. The questionnaire was pilot tested with two faculty members and two students from the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics as well as members from two RECs in Nigeria. Feedback from this process was used to produce the final questionnaire in English.

The questionnaire was sent by postal mail and email to the chairpersons, secretaries, or administrative officers of the identified RECs. The questionnaire was sent to chief medical directors or chief executive officers of institutions hosting RECs in cases in which contact information of principal REC officers was not available. Data were initially collected over a period of five months (February to July 2010), and thereafter nonresponding RECs received follow-up phone calls or emails at least once a month for five months. All responses were received via the contact email provided in the questionnaire.

Returned questionnaires were manually coded and deidentified. Responses to closed-ended questions were entered into IBM-SPSS and cross-checked for inappropriate entries. Proportions were calculated and Fisher’s exact tests conducted to identify possible associations between selected REC characteristics and the degree to which REC structure and operations conformed to relevant guidelines. Conformity was determined based on response and alignment with 16 criteria (Table 1, available, along with the other tables, via the IRB: Ethics & Human Research web page). These criteria were derived from those that were common to the Nigeria National Code of Health Research Ethics and the WHO guidelines 24 with three exceptions: review turn-around time, compliance with other international guidelines, and registration (of the REC) with both the NHREC and OHRP (criterion 13, 15, and 16, respectively, in Table 1). Criterion 13 was specific to the Nigerian guideline, while criteria 15 and 16 were added for the purposes of this study alone. RECs received a score of 1 for each criterion reported to have a corresponding policy. Scores were converted to percentage points, and RECs were categorized as having low conformity (< 40%), moderate conformity (41%-59%), or high conformity (> = 60%).

Survey Results

Of 72 institutions identified from OHRP, the NHREC, FMOH, and FMS&T as likely to have RECs, we confirmed at the outset that six did not have any REC. Questionnaires were sent to the RECs of the remaining 66 institutions. Responses were received from 29 institutions, resulting in a 44% response rate. Of the 29 institutions that responded, 4 further reported that their RECs were not operational; thus, this study reports on responses from 25 operational RECs in Nigeria unless otherwise specified (effective response 25/66 = 38%) (Figure 1, available via the IRB: Ethics & Human Research web page).

REC chairpersons completed 19 (76%) of the questionnaires, while either the secretary or a member of the REC completed each of the rest. Responding RECs were spread across Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones. Most were based at public teaching hospitals; most universities did not have RECs (Table 2). Twenty-three RECs (92%) reported having criteria for membership. Some of the criteria included requirements for including laypersons/community members and for multiprofessional representation, by, for example, lawyers and clergy. Committees had an average of 12 members, with an average gender breakdown of eight males and four females. Fourteen RECs (56%) reported that they had at least one layperson/community member, 16 (64%) a lawyer, and 7 (28%) a bioethicist as members, while only 3 (12%) had both a Muslim and a Christian clergyperson. All RECs reported having at least one physician among their members.

Sixteen RECs (64%) reported that they provided training for their members and had trained, on average, seven members each. This included 10 RECs (out of a total of 14) that required members to receive refresher trainings at least once a year and 6 RECs (out of a total of 9) that had no such requirement. As for the type (mode) of training reported by the 16 RECs, 10 RECs (63%) provided an in-person workshop or seminar only, 1 REC (6%) provided an online course only, and 5 RECs (31%) provided both online and workshop- or seminar-style trainings for members (Table 2).

Twenty RECs (80%) reported having a document on standard operating procedures (SOPs) to guide operations. Seventeen (68%) said the committee met at least quarterly (Table 3). Eighty-eight percent of RECs (n = 24) required a “primary review” (review of protocols by all committee members prior to scheduled meetings), while 18 (78%, n = 23) had policies requiring consultation with external experts to guide determinations when expertise within the REC was insufficient. All 25 RECs reported using at least one international ethics guideline as the basis for their operations; the World Medical Association’s Declaration of Helsinki and the Council for International Organization for Medical Sciences’ (CIOMS’s) International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects were the most commonly used guidelines (Table 3).

As part of the application process, 20 RECs (80%) required that investigators complete application forms and submit full study protocols. Sixteen RECs required submission of protocol summaries or research plans, which are abridged versions of full study protocols used to determine the type of review necessary. Twenty-one RECs (84%) required the submission of other supporting documents, such as consent forms, questionnaires, and interview guides, while only two RECs (8%) required submission of certificates of investigator training in research ethics. At least 14 RECs (56%) considered study design, participant selection, risk versus benefits of the study, and informed-consent processes and forms to be the most important elements during protocol review.

Of the 24 RECs that responded to the question on the validity period for ethics approvals, more than half (58%) gave approvals that lasted the entire length of studies, and only 9 (38%) gave approvals limited to one year (Table 4). Of the 22 RECs that responded to the question on continuing review policy, 15 (68%) reported conducting continuing oversight of approved research studies. This was done through review of progress reports, visits to study sites, or both (Table 4).

All RECs (n = 25) kept records of their operations, and all reported keeping approved research proposals and supporting documents (Table 4). Twenty-four (96%) kept minutes of REC meetings, 15 (60%) kept research progress reports, and 11 (44%) kept records of research completion reports. Records included meeting minutes, approved research protocols, and supporting documents. Twenty-one RECs (84%) reported on the duration for which they kept records; of these, 7 RECs (33%) kept records for 6 to 10 years after the completion of a study, while others kept them for less than this period.

Seventeen RECs (68%) processed applications within three months, and eight RECs (32%) in less than one month (Table 4). The total number of study protocols reviewed in 2008 varied widely, with 13 RECs (54%) reporting reviewing fewer than 30 protocols, 8 RECs (33%) reporting 30 to 70 protocols, and 3 RECs (13%) reporting more than 70 protocols. For 14 RECs (58%), at least 75% of studies reviewed were local studies with no international funding.

Only 11 RECs (44%) reported having a dedicated office space, while a similar percentage had secure storage rooms for record keeping, computers, printers, and Internet access. Of the 24 RECs (96%) that responded to questions concerning availability of staff, all had secretaries, 13 (54%) had administrative officers, and 7 (29%) had clerks. Regarding financial resources, 3 of 22 RECs (14%) had dedicated budget lines from their host institutions for operations; 14 of 24 RECs (58%) charged fees for review, which were differentially priced for internationally and locally funded research projects. Several RECs reported being funded through grants from the Ministry of Health, medical or health research councils, and the European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership (EDCTP). Only 5 of 21 RECs (24%) remunerated their members (Table 5).

The degree of conformity of RECs in this study to the Nigerian National Code of Health Research Ethics and to the operational guidelines of the WHO’s REC was evaluated based on the selected 16-point criteria in Table 1. Four RECs (16%) satisfied fewer than 6 (< 38%) of the criteria; 9 RECs (36%) met between 7 and 10 of the criteria (44% to 63%), while 12 RECs (48%) met at least 11 of the criteria (> 68%). Table 6 shows the results of our analysis of the relationship of REC characteristics with the degree of conformity of RECs to the Nigerian code and the WHO’s REC guidelines. The results show that RECs with chairs who had prior training in bioethics (p = 0.067) and those committees registered with both OHRP and the NHREC (p = 0.013) were more likely to exhibit a higher degree of conformity to these guidelines. No strong association was found with the other factors assessed.

RECs (72%) reported support from the head of their host institution as a major strength of the ethics committee. Fourteen RECs (56%) also thought that the training and experience of their members in contemporary bioethics issues was an important strength that had helped them function effectively. Nineteen RECs (76%) mentioned inadequate funding as their major weakness. Other weaknesses reported included low motivation of REC members and lack of adequate office space (in both cases, this was reported by 13 RECs, [52%]). Respondents also rated, from most to least important, their preferences for training in nine different areas. At least 14 RECs (56%) agreed on the importance of three training needs: “[e]thical issues in research with vulnerable populations,” “[e]thical issues in research with communities,” and “[e]thical issues in drug/vaccine trial.” RECs preferred that these issues be addressed through workshop or seminar trainings and that these last for less than one week.

This study describing the structures and operations of health RECs in Nigeria provides insight into the RECs’ capacities to promote the protection of human research participants in accordance with the Nigerian National Code of Health Research Ethics and the WHO’s REC guidelines. When published in 2000, the WHO’s guidelines were widely consulted as a reference document for the establishment of RECs and operational benchmarking especially in developing countries. The document provided guidance on constitution of RECs, membership structure, establishment of offices, quorum requirements, record keeping and archiving, consultation with external experts, training of members, meeting requirements, elements of review, and the like. 25 The Nigerian ethics code provided further specification on the provisions of the WHO’s guidelines and how they ought to apply to the operations of RECs in Nigeria. The Nigerian code was developed (as were the WHO guidelines) with consideration of provisions from other international sources including CIOMS’s ethics guidelines, the WHO’s Declaration of Helsinki, and the U.S. Common Rule (45 CFR 46.107). Fadare and Proteri provide a more detailed analysis of the Nigerian code, comparing it with international guidelines. 26

Overall, there is variability in the degree to which operations and review processes adopted by RECs in this study conformed to the Nigerian code and the WHO’s guidelines. At least 80% of the RECs reported having SOPs, multidisciplinary membership, and a proper record-keeping practice. This agrees with a similar report from Egypt by Sleem et al. and a multicountry study by Nyika et al., which reported that 83% and 71% of RECs, respectively, had SOPs. 27 This may be attributable to capacity-building initiatives present in Nigeria since 2006 that included the establishment of the West African Bioethics Training Program (funded by the Fogarty International Center and the National Human Genome Research Institute, both entities of the U.S. National Institutes of Health). 28 Other in-country institutions or nongovernmental organizations supporting capacity building for RECs include the New HIV/AIDS and Microbicide Advocacy Society, the Obafemi Awolowo University Institute of Public Health, and the Association for Good Clinical Practice. 29

The finding in this study that few laypersons/community members were on the RECs is similar to findings from other studies. 30 However, there are practices and recommendations that promote the inclusion of more laypersons on RECs. In the United Kingdom, the U.K. Health Department’s policy on RECs requires laypersons to comprise one-third of RECs, and the law in Denmark requires half plus one of all REC members to be laypersons. 31 In the United States, the National Bioethics Advisory Commission recommended that laypersons constitute 25% of REC membership. 32 In both the U.K. and Denmark, the requirement for having laypersons on the committee is an attempt to ensure that the perspectives of nonscientists are taken into consideration during REC reviews. Similarly, regulatory requirements in the United States for RECs to include at least one individual who is not otherwise affiliated with the institution and one individual who is a nonscientist, in theory, supports the identification of potential concerns and preferences of those who represent “outside” interests and perspectives. Although there is no specific document that defines who a lay member is in Nigeria, in practice, the term “layperson” is used to apply to members with nonscientific backgrounds who are not affiliated with the REC and who bring perspectives from the lay community from which people will be recruited to participate in research. The interchange in the use of “laypersons/community members” in this article reflects the multiple roles that laypersons are typically meant to serve in the country. In Nigeria, a new approach is further being implemented to improve the role of laypersons/community members on RECs. This approach focuses on the ability of laypersons/community members to engage in the protocol review process and provide constructive feedback. In 2009 and 2010, the New HIV Vaccine and Microbicide Advocacy Society, in collaboration with the NHREC, successfully trained 30 laypersons/community members from more than 10 RECs in Nigeria to review protocols and provide constructive feedback. 33 An evaluation of the impact of this new project on the work of RECs would be an important undertaking, especially given our results indicating that priority topics for REC capacity development include ethical issues in research with communities and vulnerable populations.

RECs demonstrated high compliance in terms of the documents that they requested that researchers submit for review, except in the requirement for submission of investigator certificates in ethics training; information about these certificates has not been reported in other studies on RECs in the region. The high number of RECs with record-keeping policies is encouraging, although, in practice, not all of these RECs fully conformed with extant record-keeping guidelines. While the current Nigerian guideline requires RECs to keep all study records for at least 10 years after the completion of a study, only 24% reported keeping records for that long. This finding may be attributable to the limited office space that the RECs had; only 11 RECs had dedicated office spaces in their host institutions.

The RECs that were surveyed reviewed, on average, 36 protocols per year, which were mostly local studies. Review of international collaborative studies constituted at least 25% of the workload of most of the RECs. This shows that the workload of the RECs was modest and similar to what was found in the study on RECs in Egypt, which reviewed an average of 42.3 (n = 9) protocols per year. 34

The NHREC requires that all RECs demonstrate that they provide some form of ethics training for their members as part of the requirement for initial and renewal REC registration. Although nine RECs reported not having a policy for refresher training, it was also reported by several of these RECs that some members had received refresher training even though the RECs did not have a formal training policy. This may suggest that even without such a policy, RECs are aware of the importance of training for their members and are making efforts in this regard. Nonetheless, 40% of RECs in this study reported lack of training in bioethics as a major challenge. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests that delays in renewal of REC registrations are largely due to the inability to organize the required refresher training for REC members due to limited funding. Member training prior to committee appointment is also likely to be important. While our results indicate that many chairs of RECs in Nigeria reported having completed some amount of training in research ethics prior to their service, many other members did not. This finding is also similar to that of Sleem et al., 35 indicating an important challenge for similarly situated RECs. Ideally, all members should have prior training in research ethics and continuing training during their service as REC members.

As mentioned above, recently adopted systems for registration of RECs, such as those instated in Nigeria and South Africa, may help bridge the training gap. 36 In these countries, individuals who apply or are nominated for REC membership must have a minimum level of training in research ethics. In Nigeria, this is typically satisfied by completion of an NHREC-approved training workshop (which lasts between 3 and 5 days) and/or the Nigerian component of the CITI online training. 37 The observed low conformity of RECs to the Nigerian requirement for prior training in research ethics was likely attributable to REC member appointments’ having occurred before formal initiation of the national REC registration process. 38 Additional future training activities for REC members should take into account stated preferences for face-to-face interaction, although further studies may be needed to better understand actual training practices and obstacles for REC members in Nigeria and similarly situated countries.

Resources available to RECs were also found to be inadequate to support high-quality administrative processes. The finding that most RECs did not have administrative officers or clerks is similar to findings in previous reports. 39 Moreover, poor financing, in general, of RECs in Nigeria and across much of Africa has also been documented previously. 40 This poses a major challenge for the development, sustainability, and growth of research ethics systems in the region.

Limited resources, along with nonremuneration of REC members, could also contribute to motivational deficits among REC members and affect the productivity and efficiency of RECs. Indeed, 52% of RECs in this study reported that low motivation was a major weakness. Nyika et al.’s suggestion to study the funding necessary for RECs in Africa to function effectively remains relevant as a first concrete step to inform key stakeholders and support long-term sustainability. 41 Furthermore, the Association of Administrators of Research Ethics Committees in Africa, which was established as an outcome of the African Conference for Administrators of Research Ethics Committees in Botswana, may serve as a resource in the work of strengthening REC administrators in the subregion. 42 However, this new initiative would also require funding to become fully functional.

It is interesting that conformity with the Nigerian code and the WHO guidelines was positively associated with prior training of REC chairs in bioethics and with the dual registration status of RECs with OHRP and the NHREC. The former association is relevant to the numerous calls in the literature and elsewhere for REC capacity building not only in procedures but also in ethics principles themselves, while the latter suggests that registration of RECs with both OHRP and the NHREC can support (or be a sign of) efforts by RECs to meet both local and global standards. Indeed, it was noteworthy to us that better adherence to international ethics guidance was not found when an REC had registered with only either OHRP or the NHREC but only when an REC had registered with both. Of note, however, all NHREC-registered RECs in the study were also registered with OHRP. The lack of positive association with OHRP registration alone might signal the importance of local oversight of research ethics committees and, perhaps more pointedly, of support that local governing bodies can provide to help committees interpret and apply local and international standards. A close collaboration between OHRP and national ethics committee regulatory authorities, where they exist and are functional, could help in this regard.

RECs generally agreed that a national body (the NHREC) that coordinates and provides guidelines for the operations of RECs adds value to protection systems for human research participants in Nigeria. This finding is consistent with findings from Egypt 43 and supports the call by the WHO and UNESCO’s International Bioethics Committee for the establishment of such national structures in developing countries. However, it is important to ensure that national committees are established within existing public health systems if they are to be sustainable and capable of supporting the strengthening of health systems. 44 In Nigeria, the NHREC is now legislatively supported by the Nigeria National Health Act, 2014. Its role includes, among other things, setting norms and standards for the conduct of human and animal research (including clinical trials), registering and auditing RECs, adjudicating complaints about REC operations, and advising the government on ethical issues. 45

This study’s effort to identify ethics committees according to the degree to which their organization and operations conform to local and international guidelines offers a basic approach for assessing the broad functional quality of RECs. However, while the ways in which RECs are organized and their operations are important, these are only components of functional quality. Assessing the degree to which structural and functional variations in RECs influence the protection of human research participants is beyond the scope of this national review but should be an aim of future in-depth functional quality evaluations.

Finally, there are many research studies being conducted in biomedical and social and behavioral science faculties in the more than 45 universities in Nigeria; however, preliminary evidence suggests that almost none of the universities in Nigeria have RECs. It is nationally and internationally important to determine what systems, if any, exist for research oversight in these institutions and what steps might be taken to move additional institutions toward compliance with international norms.

This study has several limitations. Although the response rate for the study was within the expected range as reported by Cook et al., poor Internet access in the country as well as the length of the questionnaire may have influenced survey completion and the overall rate of response. 46 Respondents were also limited to REC chairs or their designees (secretaries, administrative officers, or members), and, thus, there is a risk of response bias. That 41 RECs either did not respond to the survey or were found to be nonoperational may also suggest bias among the 25 that did respond. However, of those that responded, only a slightly higher number of responding RECs (15 RECs) were registered with either OHRP or the NHREC or both; the remaining 10 RECs were unregistered at the time of data collection. Having this diversity in registration statuses may help to offset nonresponse bias; however, it cannot render such bias wholly insignificant. In addition, prior training in research ethics was self-defined, and, therefore, we are not able to determine whether, for example, there is a difference in association with guideline conformity depending on the duration or type of training received. Moreover, due to the study design, we were unable to obtain certain information, such as what the RECs meant by stating that they used the Belmont Report principles more than the U.S. Common Rule to guide their work. Finally, since the surveys were anonymous, we were unable to understand the reasons for omissions by respondents and whether the individuals responding did so unilaterally or with input from other REC members. Given that the lead researcher was also the secretary to the National Ethics Committee, it was centrally important to use an anonymous approach, but it also affected our ability to address the volume of “missing data” values.

To our knowledge, this is the first study documenting the operations, organization, and needs of RECs from across all the geopolitical zones in Nigeria. This study highlights the fact that, though REC operations are generally aligned with many local and international codes and guidelines, there is wide variability among institutions in the degree to which these guidelines are applied. Additionally, in most RECs, the availability of material, human, and financial resources needed for optimal operations is inadequate, and there are limited opportunities for continuous capacity building for REC members. In particular, in order to address the variability observed in this study, we recommend the establishment or strengthening of networks for chairs and administrators of RECs across Nigeria. This would have the potential to foster improved common understanding of national standards and norms of practice. Further capacity building for RECs supported by the NHREC as well as institutionalization of REC audits or other monitoring mechanisms that support REC operations may also be useful in this regard, especially given the limited capacity of OHRP to audit registered RECs around the world. Lastly, with the enactment of the law that now further strengthens the NHREC and other institutional RECs–and taking into consideration the competition for the limited funding available across all sectors of the Nigerian economy and, more specifically, organizations within the health sector, such as the NHREC–there is a need to implement a mechanism to ensure that RECs receive resources necessary for their optimal operations. Though methodologically difficult, resource allocation and priority-setting decisions would be greatly facilitated by future efforts to evaluate the degree to which structural and functional variations in RECs influence the protection of human research participants.

Tables and Figure

All of the tables and the figure for this article are available via the IRB: Ethics & Human Research web page, part of the Hastings Center website.

Aminu A. Yakubu, BSc, MPH, is an assistant chief research officer in the Department of Health Planning, Research & Statistics and a desk officer to the National Health Research Ethics Committee in the Federal Ministry of Health, in Abuja, Nigeria; Adnan A. Hyder, MD, MPH, PhD, is a professor and the codirector of the Johns Hopkins-Fogarty African Bioethics Training Program at the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University; Joseph Ali, JD, is a research scholar at the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics at Johns Hopkins University; and Nancy Kass, ScD, is a professor and the codirector of the Johns Hopkins-Fogarty African Bioethics Training Program at the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University.

Acknowledgments

This study was conducted as the practicum part of the Johns Hopkins Fogarty African Bioethics Fellowship awarded to Aminu A. Yakubu. We are grateful to Prof. Clement Adebamowo for providing local supervision of this study in Nigeria as well as to Mr. Makwin Mabwe and Dr. Olusegun Afolabi for their support with statistical analysis. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health/Fogarty International Centre Science Education Partnership Award number 2R25TW001604-13.

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• London L. Ethical oversight of public health research: Can rules and IRBs make a difference in developing countries? American Journal of Public Health 2002;92(7):1079-1084.
• McMillan JR, Conlon C. The ethics of research related to health care in developing countries. Journal of Medical Ethics 2004;30(2):204-206; Kass N, Dawson L, Loyo-Berrios NI. Ethical oversight of research in developing countries. IRB: Ethics & Human Research 2003;25(2):1-10; Kass N, Hyder A. Attitudes and experiences of U.S. and developing country investigators regarding U.S. human subjects regulations. In: Ethical and Policy Issues in International Research: Clinical Trials in Developing Countries , Vol. II, Commissioned Papers and Staff Analysis. Ed. National Bioethics Advisory Commission. Bethesda, MD: National Bioethics Advisory Commission 2001, pp. B1-B220; Hyder AA et al. Ethical review of health research: A perspective from developing country researchers. Journal of Medical Ethics 2004;30(1):68-72; Nuffield Council on Bioethics. The Ethics of Research Related to Healthcare in Developing Countries . London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2002.
• Kass NE et al. The structure and function of research ethics committees in Africa: A case study. PLoS Medicine . 2007;4(1):e3.
• Loue S, Okello D. Research bioethics in the Ugandan context II: Procedural and substantive reform. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2000;28(2):165-1673; Ikingura JK, Kruger M, Zeleke W. Health research ethics review and needs of institutional ethics committees in Tanzania. Tanzania Health Research Bulletin 2007;9(3):154-158; Arda B. The experience of the research ethics committees in Turkey. Medicine and Law 2000;19(3):493-500.
• Silverman H, Hull SC, Sugarman J. Variability among institutional review boards’ decisions within the context of a multicenter trial. Critical Care Medicine 2001;29(2):235-241; Stair TO et al. Variation in institutional review board responses to a standard protocol for a multicenter clinical trial. Academic Emergency Medicine 2001;8(6):636-461; Hirshon JM et al. Variability in institutional review board assessment of minimal-risk research. Academic Emergency Medicine 2002;9(12):1417-1420; Petersen LA et al. How variability in the IRB review process impacts minimal-risk multisite health services research. Annals of Internal Medicine 2012;156(10):728-735.
• McWilliams R et al. Problematic variation in local institutional review of a multicenter genetic epidemiology study. JAMA 2003;290(3):360-366; Gold JL, Dewa CS. Institutional review boards and multisite studies in health services research: Is there a better way? Health Services Research 2005;40(1):291-308; Pogorzelska M et al. Changes in the institutional review board submission process for multicenter research over six years. Nursing Outlook 2010;58(4):181-187.
• Nicholls SG et al. A scoping review of empirical research relating to quality and effectiveness of research ethics review. PLoS One 2015;10(7):e0133639.
• See ref. 5, Loue and Okello 2000; see ref. 5, Ikingura et al. 2007; see ref. 5, Arda 2000; Caniza MA et al. Establishment of ethical oversight of human research in El Salvador: Lessons learned. Lancet Oncology 2006;7(12):1027-1033; Elsayed DE. The current situation of health research and ethics in Sudan. Developing World Bioethics 2004;4(2):154-159; Macpherson CC. Research ethics: Beyond the guidelines. Developing World Bioethics 2001;1(1):57-68; Moodley K, Myer L. Health research ethics committees in South Africa 12 years into democracy. BMC Medical Ethics 2007;8:1; Sleem H, El-Kamary SS, Silverman HJ. Identifying structures, processes, resources and needs of research ethics committees in Egypt. BMC Medical Ethics 2010;11:12; Valdez-Martinez E et al. Descriptive ethics: A qualitative study of local research ethics committees in Mexico. Developing World Bioethics 2006;6(2):95-105.
• See ref. 9, Sleem et al. 2010.
• See ref. 5, Ikingura et al. 2007.
• See ref. 5, Arda B. 2000.
• See ref. 9, Caniza et al. 2006.
• See ref. 5, Loue and Okello 2000; Yakubu A, Adebamowo CA. Implementing national system of health research ethics regulations: The Nigerian experience. BeOnline: Journal of the West African Bioethics Training Program 2012;1(1):4-15.
• Kirigia JM, Wambebe C, Baba-Moussa A. Status of national research bioethics committees in the WHO African region. BMC Medical Ethics 2005;6:E10; Rivera R, Ezcurra E. Composition and operation of selected research ethics review committees in Latin America. IRB: Ethics & Human Research 2001;23(5):9-12; World Health Organization. Ethics in Health Research: An Overview of Ethical Review Mechanisms in Countries of South-East Asian Regional Office. 27th Session of the WHO South-East Asia Advisory Committee on Health Research. Dhaka, Bangladesh, April 15-18, 2002.
• Silaigwana B, Wassenaar D. Biomedical research ethics committees in sub-Saharan Africa: A collective review of their structure, functioning, and outcomes. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics 2015;10(2):169-184.
• Falusi AG, Olopade OI, Olopade CO. Establishment of a standing ethics/institutional review board in a Nigerian university: A blueprint for developing countries. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics 2007;2(1):21-30.
• Eyelade OR, Ajuwon AJ, Adebamowo CA. An appraisal of the process of protocol review by an ethics review committee in a tertiary institution in Ibadan. African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences 2011;40(2):163-169.
• Agunloye AM, Salami AT, Lawan A. Current role of research ethics committees in health research in three geopolitical zones in Nigeria: A qualitative study. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law 2014;7(1):19-22.
• Oyedeji KS. A study of the needs and resources of health research ethics committees in South Western Nigeria [master’s dissertation]. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2011. Referenced in: Silaigwana B, Wassenaar D. Biomedical research ethics committees in sub-Saharan Africa: A collective review of their structure, functioning, and outcomes. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics 2015;10(2):169-184.
• World Health Organization. Operational Guidelines for ethical committees that review biomedical research. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2000; Federal Ministry of Health. National Code of Health Research Ethics. Abuja, Nigeria: Federal Ministry of Health, 2007.
• Department of Health and Human Services. Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) Database for Registered IORGs & IRBs, Approved FWAs, and Documents Received in Last 60 Days. https://ohrp.cit.nih.gov/search/irbsearch.aspx?styp=bsc; National Health Research Ethics Committee. Database of Registered Health Research Ethics Committees. https://nhrec.net/nhrec/registered-health-research-ethics-committees-in-nigeria-hrec/.
• Milford C, Wassenaar D, Slack C. Resource and needs of research ethics committees in Africa: Preparations for HIV vaccine trials. IRB: Ethics & Human Research 2006;28(2):1-9.
• See ref. 21, World Health Organization 2000.
• The WHO guidelines were revised in 2011, providing more depth to the 2000 version and an improved structure to enable its use in performance monitoring of RECs; however, the core elements required for REC operations and structures remained the same. This study was conducted prior to the issuance of the 2011 version.
• Fadare JO, Porteri C. Informed consent in human subject research: A comparison of current international and Nigerian guidelines. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics 2010;5(1):67-74.
• See ref. 9, Sleem et al. 2010; Nyika A et al. Capacity building of ethics review committees across Africa based on the results of a comprehensive needs assessment survey. Developing World Bioethics 2009;9(3):149-156.Â
• Adebamowo CA. West African bioethics training program: Raison d’etre. African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences 2007;36 Suppl:35-38.
• The Institute of Public Health. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, Oyo State. https://iphoau.org/structure.php; Association for Good Clinical Practice. https://www.agcpng.com.
• See ref. 5, Ikingura et al. 2007; see ref. 9, Moodley and Myer 2007; see ref. 15, Kirigia et al. 2005; see ref. 16, Silaigwana et al. 2015; Nyika A et al. Composition, training needs and independence of ethics review committees across Africa: Are the gate-keepers rising to the emerging challenges? Journal of Medical Ethics 2009;35(3):189-193.
• Holm S. How many lay members can you have in your IRB?: An overview of the Danish system. IRB: Ethics & Human Research 1992;14(6):8-11; U.K. Departments of Health. Governance Arrangements for Research Ethics Committees: A Harmonised Edition . Department of Health, 2011.
• National Bioethics Advisory Commission. Ethical and Policy Issues in Research Involving Human Participants , vol. I. Rockville, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001.
• Folayan MO et al. Impact of three years training on operations capacities of research ethics committees in Nigeria. Developing World Bioethics 2014;14(1):1-14.
• See ref. 9, Moodley and Myer, 2007; Adebamowo CA et al. Developing ethical oversight of research in developing countries: Case study of Nigeria. Harvard Health Policy Review 2007;8(1):96-106.
• Braunschweiger P, Goodman KW. The CITI program: An international online resource for education in human subjects protection and the responsible conduct of research. Academic Medicine 2007;82(9):861-864.
• In Nigeria, the registration system is further used to categorize RECs according to the types, nature, and complexity of research studies they may review and their area(s) of jurisdiction.
• See ref. 30, Nyika et al. 2009.
• See ref. 9, Moodley and Myer 2007, Sleem et al. 2010; see ref. 23, Milford et al. 2006; see ref. 30, Nyika et al. 2009.
• See ref 30, Nyika et al. 2009.
• Brecher B et al. Is it appropriate for research ethics committees to make judgements about the scientific quality of research proposals? Nursing Ethics 2011;18(1):122-125.
• Hyder AA et al. Moving from research ethics review to research ethics systems in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet 2009;373(9666):862-865.
• Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette. National Health Act, 2014.
• Cook C, Heath F, Thompson RL. A Meta-analysis of response rates in web- or Internet-based surveys. Educational and Psychological Measurement 2000;60(6):821-836.
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What Nigeria must do to eliminate malaria: three researchers offer insights

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Nigeria accounts for nearly a quarter of deaths from malaria in the world – in 2018 the numbers stood at 95,000. Three of the country’s top malaria researchers reflect on why the numbers remain so high.

What does Nigeria need to do to eliminate malaria?

Olukemi K. Amodu: research and innovate

Malaria remains an important public health hazard globally. It is responsible for high disease and death rates especially among children under five and pregnant women.

The malaria burden in Nigeria is high – 25% of cases globally. The causes include the climate, high transmission potential, socioeconomic development, an overstretched health care system and displaced populations.

Eliminating the disease will take sustained local funding and a strong political commitment at the federal and state levels. This requires a strong recognition of the risk to children and pregnant women. The elimination plan must include focused research and strengthening health systems. It must also be population specific.

It must incorporate World Health Organisation-recommended core interventions. One of these is vector control: protective measures such as insecticide treated materials, spraying to kill mosquito larvae and indoor spraying. The other is diagnostic testing and prompt treatment with effective medicines.

Nigeria needs sustained, interdisciplinary and multi-faceted research. This should be an interplay of basic sciences, clinical epidemiology, field epidemiology, social and behavioural studies. This will ultimately help in studying the differences and diversities in the population. Our federal government must invest more in this type of research.

Malaria prevalence data, clinical epidemiology, parasite diagnostics and rates are important tools for evaluating control efforts. Studies of population biology, genetics and density of the malaria parasite and vector will help find effective diagnostics, new indigenous drugs and new vector control methods.

There must be equal access to health management tools for malaria at all levels. This must embrace educating patent medicine sellers and incorporating knowledge of traditional or herbal medicine practices.

We need to develop new interventions for malaria control suitable for our population.

For example, people say insecticide treated nets are inconvenient, so we also need to develop new ways to use the available protective measures.

Olusegun George Ademowo: beat the mosquitoes

Efforts should be geared towards drastic reduction of contact between humans and mosquitoes. Surveillance is a very important component of malaria elimination.

Environmental management aims to control mosquitoes by removing their breeding sites and larvae. This can be done through clearing bushes around the house and other buildings. It’s important to dispose of broken pots and bottles, fix potholes on our roads and keep gutters clean.

We must also have reliable and affordable diagnostic means for detection of malaria parasites. The most user friendly is the rapid diagnostic test. It detects specific malaria antigens in a person’s blood if they are infected. The most sensitive tests should be identified and made available in health care facilities. They are needed in primary health care and recommended for home use. Expert microscopy should be used to validate the kits periodically.

Artemisinin-based combination drugs are the most acceptable for treatment. They should be made accessible and affordable. Special attention should be given to vulnerable groups: children, pregnant women and non-immune individuals visiting Nigeria from non-malarious countries.

The government must also be willing to eliminate malaria in Nigeria. The Malaria Elimination Programme should be strengthened to evolve relevant home grown means to achieve its goals. The staff must be accountable and dedicated and a monitoring and evaluation system should be put in place.

Segun Isaac Oyedeji: from nets to vaccines

In 1955 , the WHO launched the Global Malaria Eradication Programme to eradicate malaria globally.

But not all countries were involved in the programme. After some achieved elimination, its financiers stopped financial support and it stalled. Consequently, the responsibility to eliminate malaria now falls on individual countries.

To eliminate malaria in Nigeria, there must be sincere and sustained commitment by the government, policy makers and citizens. We must be ready to scale up existing malaria control measures and targeted interventions.

Available tools and strategies are currently targeted towards vector control, prompt and accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. These have enormous impact on malaria elimination programmes, succeeding in countries that have eliminated malaria and others at the pre-elimination phase.

The following control measures must be enforced and implemented:

We must ensure that at least 75% of the population use long-lasting insecticidal nets to kill or repel the mosquito that transmits the infection. This would give us “herd-protection” because mosquitoes would find less infected hosts and transmission of the parasite will reduce drastically. Those who have the nets must use them effectively.

We must make sure all pregnant women get treatment.

Government and policy makers may also consider the need for mass drug administration for the entire population at the same time.

Our health systems must be restructured, strengthened and made ready to face the challenges of malaria elimination.

Governments must commit to scale up funding for malaria control, the same way they aggressively pursued COVID-19 prevention and control .

Development of an antimalarial vaccine will also be important for regional malaria elimination and future eradication effort. Getting a vaccine is a global effort and we are at phase III trial currently. Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique are involved as study centres or trial sites.

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The Nigerian health care system: Need for integrating adequate medical intelligence and surveillance systems

Menizibeya osain welcome.

Department of Normal Physiology, Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk, Belarus, Pr., Dzerjinsky 83, Minsk, Belarus

Objectives:

As an important element of national security, public health not only functions to provide adequate and timely medical care but also track, monitor, and control disease outbreak. The Nigerian health care had suffered several infectious disease outbreaks year after year. Hence, there is need to tackle the problem. This study aims to review the state of the Nigerian health care system and to provide possible recommendations to the worsening state of health care in the country. To give up-to-date recommendations for the Nigerian health care system, this study also aims at reviewing the dynamics of health care in the United States, Britain, and Europe with regards to methods of medical intelligence/surveillance.

Materials and Methods:

Databases were searched for relevant literatures using the following keywords: Nigerian health care, Nigerian health care system, and Nigerian primary health care system. Additional keywords used in the search were as follows: United States (OR Europe) health care dynamics, Medical Intelligence, Medical Intelligence systems, Public health surveillance systems, Nigerian medical intelligence, Nigerian surveillance systems, and Nigerian health information system. Literatures were searched in scientific databases Pubmed and African Journals OnLine. Internet searches were based on Google and Search Nigeria.

Medical intelligence and surveillance represent a very useful component in the health care system and control diseases outbreak, bioattack, etc. There is increasing role of automated-based medical intelligence and surveillance systems, in addition to the traditional manual pattern of document retrieval in advanced medical setting such as those in western and European countries.

Conclusion:

The Nigerian health care system is poorly developed. No adequate and functional surveillance systems are developed. To achieve success in health care in this modern era, a system well grounded in routine surveillance and medical intelligence as the backbone of the health sector is necessary, besides adequate management couple with strong leadership principles.

The Nigerian health care has suffered several down-falls.[ 1 – 7 ] Despite Nigerian's strategic position in Africa, the country is greatly underserved in the health care sphere. Health facilities (health centers, personnel, and medical equipments) are inadequate in this country, especially in rural areas.[ 1 , 2 , 6 ] While various reforms have been put forward by the Nigerian government to address the wide ranging issues in the health care system, they are yet to be implemented at the state and local government area levels.[ 3 , 6 ] According to the 2009 communiquι of the Nigerian national health conference, health care system remains weak as evidenced by lack of coordination, fragmentation of services, dearth of resources, including drug and supplies, inadequate and decaying infrastructure, inequity in resource distribution, and access to care and very deplorable quality of care. The communiquι further outlined the lack of clarity of roles and responsibilities among the different levels of government to have compounded the situation.[ 3 ]

Unarguably, problems in the health care system of any country abound to a certain extent.[ 8 – 11 ] Although health has the potential to attract considerable political attention, the amount of attention it actually receives varies from place to place. In their commentary of the 3T's road map to transform US health care, Denise Dougherty and Patrick H. Conway rightly stated a step by step transformation of the US health care system from 1T →2T →3T which is required to create and sustain an information-rich and patient-focused health care system that reliably delivers high-quality care.[ 8 ]

Provision of timely information aimed at combating possible health menace among many other things is an important function of public health. Hence, inadequate tracking techniques in the public health sector can lead to huge health insecurity, and hence endanger national security, etc.[ 11 – 16 ]

For decades ago, communicable diseases outbreak was a threat not only to lives of individuals but also national security. Today it is possible to track outbreaks of diseases and step up medical treatment and preventive measures even before it spreads over a large populace.[ 17 – 20 ] Medical and epidemiological surveillance, besides adequate health care delivery, are essential functions of public health agencies whose mandate is to protect the public from major health threats, including communicable diseases outbreak, disaster outbreak, and bioterrorism.[ 17 – 20 ] To avoid the various threats and communication lapses to strengthen the health work force planning, management, and training which can have a positive effect on the health sector performance, one requires timely and accurate medical information from a wide range of sources.[ 12 ]

The Nigerian health care had suffered several infectious disease outbreaks and mass chemical poisoning for several years. Hence, there is immense need to tackle the problem.[ 1 – 6 , 21 – 24 ]

This study aims to review the state of the Nigerian health care system and to provide possible recommendations/solutions to the worsening state of health care in the country. To give up-to-date recommendations for the Nigerian health care system, the dynamics of health care in the United States and Europe with regards to methods of medical intelligence and surveillance (MIS) are also reviewed. In this article, MIS systems are suggested to be integrated into Nigerian health care system to serve the needs the health care system of the modern era.

Materials and Methods

Search strategy.

Search for literatures for this review was conducted throughout the period of the study to track new developments and published reports and articles. The search period was from June 2010 to January 2011. This study adopted a qualitative approach, so as to adequately describe the study aims and objectives. The study was based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data for this study were collected through scientific database sources and web engine searches. Secondary data were based on direct observation and relevant documents from the Nigerian Ministry of Health.

Sources of literatures

• Scientific databases: the following databases were included in the search process—PubMed and African Journals Online.
• Internet searches were based on Google and Search Nigeria ( http://www.searchnigeria.net ).

Search design

Searches in peer-reviewed databases, Google, and Search Nigeria were conducted in the following phases [ Table 1 ]. Once a preliminary list of articles was determined, the databases and Google were researched for additional articles/reports once a month to constantly track new reports and articles. Using an analytical and ancestry approach, the articles chosen were scanned for further relevant articles. The following techniques[ 25 ] were applied to further retrieve relevant articles for the review process.

Number of literatures/web page documents in various searches

Backward references search: The references of high-quality articles were searched to retrieve important information about the state of the Nigerian health care system.

Forward references search: Reviewing additional articles that have cited the article/report to locate follow-up studies or newer developments related to the state of the Nigerian health care system.

The backward and forward searches were terminated when no new idea was found. The reference list represents part of the literatures retrieved during the data collection process.

Keyword search parameters

This study was limited to keyword searches that resulted in the most relevant results. A keyword combination search was used since in this way the study aims and objectives are better attained. The following keyword combinations were used in all cases of the literature searches. The keyword searches were performed in three phases:

First phase keyword search

Nigerian health care, Nigerian health care system, and Nigerian primary health care system.

Second phase keyword search

Additional keywords used in the search were United States (OR Europe) health care dynamics. This additional search was performed to ensure an up-to-date review and recommendations for the Nigerian health care system and was not meant to review health care in the United States, Britain, or Europe with regards to methods of medical intelligence/surveillance. Some of the literatures retrieved in this search phase are listed in the reference list.[ 8 – 10 , 26 – 38 ]

Third phase keyword search

This third phase literature search was necessarily based on the retrieved results of the second phase backward reference searches. The third phase keywords combination included the following: Medical Intelligence, Medical Intelligence systems, Public health surveillance systems, Nigerian medical intelligence, Nigerian surveillance systems, and Nigerian health information system.

Backward and forward reference searches were carried out in all phases of the keyword search.

Literature selection process

Inclusion criteria.

Original communications, review articles, reports, and web page documents that report on the aim of this study were included for the review process. The articles were selected based on their relevance to the topic of this study. The results of searches were filtered according to their relevance to the aim of this search. The tittles that were logged in the various databases searched were analyzed against the keyword terms. Reports not wholly focused on the topic of this study were not included for review. All the retrieved publications were reviewed with emphasis on the state/dynamics of the Nigerian health care system, role of medical intelligence/surveillance systems in the health care system.

• This study included literatures that meant the following criteria:
• Literatures that meant the parameters of the keyword search.

Studies that discuss the history and state/dynamics of the Nigerian health care system; flaws of the Nigerian health care; managerial/information technological aspect of the Nigerian health care system; and medical intelligence/surveillance system in the Nigerian as well as other countries’ health care system.

Data analysis and synthesis

Data were extracted and recorded in Excel and Word 2007. The statistical value for significance was set at P < 0.05. Studies were analyzed based on its relevance to the Nigeria health care system.

Results and Discussion

The provision of health care in Nigeria remains the functions of the three tiers of government: the federal, state, and local government.[ 39 – 41 ] The primary health care system is managed by the 774 local government areas (LGAs), with support from their respective state ministries of health as well as private medical practitioners.[ 40 ] The primary health care has its sublevel at the village, district, and LGA. The secondary health care system is managed by the ministry of health at the state level. Patients at this level are often referred from the primary health care. This is the first level of specialty services and is available at different divisions of the state. The state primary health care comprises laboratory and diagnostic services, rehabilitation, etc. The tertiary primary health care is provided by teaching hospitals and specialist hospitals. At this level, the federal government also works with voluntary and nongovernmental organizations, as well as private practitioners.[ 39 , 42 – 44 ]

Health care reforms launched in Nigeria

Ten-year developmental plan.

Before independence in 1960, a 10-year developmental plan (1946–1956) was introduced to enhance health care delivery. Several health schools and institutions (Ministry of Health, several clinics and health centers) were developed according to this plan. By the 1980s, there had been great development in health care—general hospitals and several other health centers (over 10,000) had been introduced.[ 42 , 43 ]

The primary health care plan

August 1987, the federal government launched its primary health care plan with the following major objectives:[ 12 , 42 , 43 ]

• Improve collection and monitoring of health data
• Improve personnel development in the health care
• Ensure the provision essential drug availability
• Improve on immunization programs
• Promote treatment of epidemic diseases
• Improve food supply and nutrition
• Improve material and child care, and family planning
• Educate people on prevailing health problems and the methods of preventing and controlling them.

This health care plan made little impact on the health sector, as it continued to suffer major infrastructural, and personnel deficit, in addition to poor public health management.

Nigerian health insurance scheme

As an effort by the federal government to revitalize the worsening state of health, the Nigerian health insurance scheme (NHIS) that was established in 2005 by Decree 35 of 1999 provided for the establishment of a governing council with the responsibility of managing the scheme.[ 41 ] However, Ladi Awosika noted that the scheme was first proposed in 1962 under a bill to parliament by the then Minister for Health.[ 43 ]

The objectives of the scheme were to[ 41 , 45 ]

• Ensure that every Nigerian has access to good health care services
• Protect Nigerians from the financial burden of medical bills
• Limit the rise in the cost of health care services
• Ensure efficiency in health care services
• Ensure equitable distribution of health care costs among different income groups; equitable patronage of all levels of health care
• Maintain high standard of health care delivery services within the scheme
• Improve and harness private sector participation in the provision of health care services
• Ensure adequate distribution of health facilities within the Federation
• Ensure the availability of funds to the health sector for improved services.

The objectives and functions of the NHIS[ 44 , 45 ] according to this present review have hardly attained any height as health care delivery continues to be limited; not equitable and does not meet the needs of the majority of the Nigerian people. This is indicative of the high infant mortality rate/poor maternal care, very low life expectancy as at 2010, and periodical outbreak of the same disease, as well as the long period of time spent for control of the various outbreaks [Tables ​ [Tables2 2 and ​ and3 3 ].

Some health indicators for Nigeria[ 12 ]

Disease outbreak and chemical disaster in Nigeria between 2006 and 2010[ 48 ]

The appendage program of the NHIS launched in October 2008—Millennium Development Goals—also reported little positive effect a year later. The Nigerian National Health Conference in 2006 which was attended by more than 400 participants, including high cadre dignitaries ranging from the presidency to local governments and their agencies were aimed at ensuring effective, qualitative, affordable, and accessible health care for all Nigerians beyond 2007.[ 3 – 6 ] According to the 2005 January issue of CARE-NET limited health insurance report concerning the NHIS, the Nigerian national health policy objective was the attainment of a level of health that will enable all Nigerians to achieve socially and economically productive lives.[ 46 ] Since its lunching primary health care has not gained its right place in the priority of things.[ 3 – 6 , 46 ] As part of the struggle to advance health care, the Nigerian senate in 2008 launched a bill for an act to provide a framework for the regulation, development, and management of a national health system and set standards for rendering health services in the federation and other matters connected with it.[ 45 ]

In spite of the several failures of the Nigerian health care system, recent study had suggested that if managed well, the NHIS could be a useful ground for good health care delivery.[ 47 ] At its present state, it is true that the scheme does not adequately account for the needs of the Nigerian people.

Indicators of health care in Nigeria

In spite of the huge development in the health care in relation to the last decades,[ 12 , 42 – 44 ] much is still needed to be done in the health care system.[ 39 , 40 ] This is evident in the various health indicators outlined in Table 2 and mortality from several outbreaks of diseases in Table 3 .[ 48 ]

Although the total expenditure in health amounts to 4.6% GDP,[ 12 ] financial managerial competency, besides inadequate funding, remains a major problem. Current statistics show that health institutions rendering health care in Nigeria are 33,303 general hospitals, 20,278 primary health centers and posts, and 59 teaching hospital and federal medical centers.[ 40 ] This represents a huge improvement in regards to the last decades; nonetheless, health care institution continues to suffer shortage.

The backward and forward reference searches on second phase keywords search revealed increasing role of health information, communication as integral to leadership,[ 8 – 11 , 18 – 20 , 26 – 38 ] as well as increasing role of medical intelligence/surveillance in the health care system in the United States and Europe.[ 12 , 49 , 50 – 83 ]

Health care dynamics in the United States and Europe with regards to methods of medical intelligence/surveillance

Literature data report on the huge developments of MIS systems in Europe and most especially in the United States in the last few decades. For instance, the MedISys is adapted and used by 11 national public health of Europe and 4 supranatural organizations, including World Health Organization and Euro-Surveillance. MedISys provides opportunity to monitor issues of health concerns to registered countries and organizations.[ 49 , 72 , 75 , 82 ] MIS has often been used in both military health care departments[ 70 ] and public health sector.[ 73 ] MIS systems have been used to combat and effectively monitor the outbreak of communicable diseases, bioattack. etc.[ 61 , 73 ] Indeed, MIS systems were crucial to controlling SARS in 2003 and eradication of small pox in the 1970s.[ 61 ] Some MIS systems used today are listed in Table 3 . Other monitoring systems in the health care setting are the Global Monitor and HealthMap.[ 49 , 72 , 83 ]

Based on the analysis[ 7 , 18 – 20 , 72 , 82 , 50 – 85 ] of this study, MIS systems could be divided into three broad categories:

• Manual-based medical MIS systems. A huge disadvantage of method of MIS: difficult to manage, poor access, data are not easily presentable, data processing is time–consuming, and large space storage space needed.
• Automated-based medical MIS systems. Although this method of data processing has its peculiar shortcomings, the advantages exceed its disadvantages: data collection, aggregation, storing and analysis, sharing, and transmission is by hundreds of times faster and easier.
• Integrated manual-web based MIS systems (use both manual data search and web-mining).

MIS match searched results against taxonomy of named entities, e.g., names of infectious diseases, countries, or cities. Using specialized principle (e.g., ontology principle), terms/words are organized into synonyms, symptoms, associated syndromes and hosts, etc.[ 49 , 72 , 76 – 82 ] A combination of at least two MIS systems has always provided for a higher tracking precision. For example, analysis of documents by PULS, previously identified by MedISys, improves precision by almost 100%, although economically expensive.[ 72 ] However, a major disadvantage of the MedISys and PULS is their inability to perform deeper analysis of critical issues of public health concerns which is a major disadvantage.[ 72 ] Hence, integrated manual web-based medical intelligence/surveillance with professional analysis in the field provides a greater advantage over other methods of MIS (an example of such a model in shown in Figure 1 ).

A model of medical intelligence/surveillance

One of the most advanced MIS systems used today is the BioWatch which is presently installed in 30 US cities to constantly monitor biothreats.[ 67 ] The biowatch system consists of airfilter that collects air sample for genetic analysis of any bioweapon of specific interest. Targeted nucleic acid sequence associated with a pathogenetic agent is screened for in specialized laboratory. A positive result meant that the pathogenetic agent of specific interest is present in the air.[ 67 – 73 ] It is, however, pertinent to note that the present second-generation biowatch system carry a huge disadvantage as air filtered are not automatically analyzed by the system. Manual collection of filtered air sample for laboratory test has to be carried out before obtaining results. The next-generation BioWatch is presently been developed to solve this problem.[ 67 ] Several other MIS systems[ 73 ] work by syndromic approach and by analyzing signs and symptoms of diseases based on respiratory, gastrointestinal, hemorrhagic illness, etc. [ Table 4 ].

Medical intelligence/surveillance systems and their country of usage[ 73 ]

A major disadvantage that could be noted in all MIS systems is the detection of already present disaster (although the early detection allows for a faster action/control of the disaster). At this point, there could have been several fatal cases.[ 67 , 72 , 73 , 79 , 83 ] To avoid this, the present-day MIS systems integrate their functions with the evaluation of risk. That means public health disaster can be tracked even before it affects a wide population of people. One example of MIS risk system is the Brief Spousal Assault Form for the Evaluation of Risk.[ 73 ]

Major flaws in the Nigerian health care system

In spite of the various reforms to increase the provision of health to the Nigerian people, health access is only 43.3%.[ 5 ] The inadequacy of the health care delivery system in Nigeria could be attributed to the peculiar demographics of the Nigerian populace. About 55% of the population lives in the rural areas and only ~45% live in the urban areas.[ 40 , 49 ] About 70% of the health care is provided by private vendors and only 30% by the government.[ 40 , 86 – 91 ] Over 70% of drugs dispensed are substandard. Hence, the ineffectiveness of the NIHS had recently been attributed to the fact that the scheme represents only 40% of the entire population, and 52-60% are employed in the informal sector.

Over half of the population live below the poverty line, on less than $1 a day and so cannot afford the high cost of health care.[ 49 ] Also, a recent study by Akande had reported a poor referral system between the various tiers of health care which probably tells on the poor managerial functions of the health care delivery system.[ 84 ]

At the primary health care level, some have sort solutions to the aforementioned flaws. For example, several community health financing schemes [Community Based Health Insurance (CBHI)] from individuals’ (taxi drivers, market women, etc.) effort to provide the health needs for their communities are documented.[ 5 , 84 ] Some urban subpopulations have also initiated the scheme. The number of CBHI probably exceeds 585 according to a recent report by Obinna Onwujekwe and colleagues (2010).[ 5 ] In that study, the authors reported high preferences for health care benefits both at the urban and rural areas [ Table 5 ]. Problems encountered in the CBHI are its very small and inadequate funding capabilities. That notwithstanding, some CBHI have increased their scope to be registered as health maintenance organizations.[ 5 ] Also, quality of health care provided is not accessed, although this remains a problem for the NHIS too.

Preferences for health care packages as reported by majority of people

While several studies have reported many aspects of the Nigerian health care system, no work has been done in the aspect of disease tracking, and MIS techniques to meet the need of the Nigerian populace in the modern era; practically, no attention is given to surveillance systems. Hence, a major shortcoming of the Nigerian health care system is the absence of adequate MIS systems to track disease outbreaks, mass chemical poisoning, etc.

The way forward for the Nigerian health care system/recommendations

Several flaws in the health care system could have been averted through adequate MIS, which is supposed to be the first line of approach to developing the Nigerian health care system. Of course, there is a long list of barriers which lie on the pattern of leadership, infrastructures, man power challenges, clinical training, standardized diagnostic instruments, etc.[ 7 , 12 , 1 – 6 , 21 – 24 , 86 , 91 – 95 ] The reforms and changes made to retain health security seem not to have made positive effect on the health care system.[ 1 , 3 , 45 , 46 ] Considering the threats of health insecurity,[ 86 ] there is therefore immense need to revitalize the Nigerian health care system and provide specific project design to enhance cooperation and efficiency. To account for the modern day needs of Nigerians, the health care delivery system must adequately meet the following functions:

• Effectively assess patients’ dilapidating state of health
• Refer patients to specialists for appropriate treatments and supportive services
• Recognize, treat, or refer comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions for specialists’ treatment
• Perform age, gender, and culturally appropriate disease screening
• Provide brief interventions to patients with dilapidating state of health
• Chronic diseases management and prevention
• Family planning to be cooperated effectively into the health care delivery system
• Systematically and routinely measure the quality of services provided by the health system
• Mortality data of specific project enrollees to measure the effectiveness of health care provided
• Carry out health campaigns and awareness
• Develop effective counseling methods
• Comparative analysis with other countries’ experiences in addressing health changes
• Calculate the economic gain or loss of health care provided
• Economic distribution of services with adequate capitation rate
• Verify delivery of health services
• Provide performance based incentives on a regular basis
• Strong knowledge base/research culture

The huge problems encountered by the Nigerian health care system[ 1 – 7 , 12 , 21 – 24 , 45 , 46 , 86 , 91 – 95 ] could partly be due to the absence of MIS system which holds the key to successful medical leadership, as well as health care delivery. Hence, there is necessity to setup a model of MIS systems for action to suit the interest of the Nigerian people. It is supposed that if adequately managed, MIS system model for the Nigerian health care will turn out to be the Cinderella of Nigerian health care system. A view of the model is shown in Figure 1 .

The model not only specifically addresses the present problem but also put into consideration modern MIS techniques; it solves the problems encountered in several other models by adding a deeper professional analysis. Besides, it is multifunctional.

The model will perform the same functions as other MIS systems[ 62 , 75 ] do text mining from a variety of sources and track bioterrorism (such as airport biothreat, etc.), diseases (contagious, sexually transmitted diseases. etc.), events etc. The central system will analyze current result of reports and internet data received against keyword entities and to undergo selective processing of results. By selective processing, the system sends information, where appropriate to local points, government organizations, and intelligence; perform professionalized and deeper analysis of critical information or search results of critical importance will be sent for a deeper professional analysis. The model for MIS will match searched/received results against taxonomy of named entities, names of infectious diseases, states, local governments or cities/towns, villages, health agencies, etc. Besides its basic functions, it will file-out reports, send requests, issue alerts, perform several system commands, and have several databases access. Also, it will track progression and capture ongoing events, and brief situation and dynamics of events to others by selective processing. The proposed model for MIS will be suited for the Nigerian interest. To optimized information, the system will be linked to other international monitoring systems to effectively manage and control outbreaks of communicable diseases and bioterrorism threats.

The Nigerian health care system is poorly developed and has suffered several backdrops, especially at the Local Government Levels. No adequate and functional surveillance systems are developed and hence no tracking system to monitor the outbreak of communicable diseases, bioterrorism, chemical poisoning, etc. To achieve success in health care in this modern era, a system well grounded in routine surveillance and medical intelligence as the backbone of the health sector is necessary, besides adequate management couple with strong leadership principles. The recommendations given in this study may as well be applicable to other countries (especially African countries, such as Niger) that suffer the same problem.

Source of Support: Nil.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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Home > Books > Reducing Carbon Footprint in Different Sectors for Sustainability

Perspective Chapter: Unlocking Energy and Natural Resources for Sustainable Development in Nigeria – The Role of Energy Research Centers

Submitted: 15 February 2024 Reviewed: 28 February 2024 Published: 25 September 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1005050

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Amid global challenges like climate change and resource depletion, Nigeria’s pursuit of low-carbon energy resources teeters on the brink. Nigeria grapples with the delicate balance between economic growth, environmental stewardship, and energy security. Energy and natural resources are crucial to modern society, playing a pivotal role in economic development, environmental sustainability, and overall human well-being. In response to these challenges, the national energy research centers have emerged as vital institutions that can contribute to the development of sustainable innovations that would catalyze the transition to a low-carbon economy. Unlocking these potential hinges on cutting-edge research tailored to drive innovation, influence policy, and promote responsible resource management. Investing in research holds the potential to facilitate Nigeria’s transition to a low-carbon economy. These research centers can act as catalysts for unleashing the full potential of Nigeria’s energy and natural resources contributing to global efforts to combat climate change while ensuring economic growth and energy security for the populations. Achieving these objectives requires an increased investment in avant-garde research, which would propel Nigeria toward a future characterized by sustainability and prosperity and paving the way for a resilient and environmentally conscious path to long-term development.

• energy research centers
• natural resources
• energy security
• climate change
• renewable energy

Author Information

Emmanuel ogbomida *.

• Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia
• National Center for Energy and Environment, (Energy Commission of Nigeria), University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
• Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Abdullahi Mustapha

• Energy Commission of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

Chukwudi Emeribe

Lawrence ezemonye.

• Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
• Department of Chemical Engineering, Delta State University, Abraka, Oleh, Nigeria

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

The exponential growth in the world’s population places strain on natural resources demand. Major countries around the world are strengthening their resource strategies to guarantee long-term stable supply. With a rise from 30 billion tons in 1970 to 70 billion tons in 2010, the world’s yearly material extraction has increased dramatically [ 1 ]. Global energy markets are experiencing significant transformations, with growing demand from emerging economies, increasing awareness of environmental considerations, and advances in new technologies. Energy and natural resources are essential pillars of the global economy, exerting a profound impact on the development of the world’s energy landscape. They encompass various materials, components, and equipment utilized in the production, conversion, and distribution of renewable, and conventional energy sources. As key elements of the global economy, they play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of energy development worldwide.

Africa possesses abundant natural resources, including oil, gas, coal, minerals, and renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass yet faces severe energy deficiencies, with a large portion of its population lacking access to modern energy services [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. This paradox emphasizes a critical challenge facing the continent, where abundant resources coexist with pervasive energy poverty. Energy poverty not only impacts the daily lives of millions but also impedes the region’s potential for economic growth and social advancement. It stands as a critical indicator closely tied to the well-being, health, gender equality, poverty levels, and food security of households and nations [ 2 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Africa’s excessive reliance on fossil fuels has perpetuated the cycle of energy poverty, characterized by inadequate access to electricity, clean fuel, and modern energy infrastructure. Millions of Africans lack access to reliable electricity, relying instead on inefficient and environmentally harmful energy sources such as biomass, kerosene, and diesel generators [ 13 ]. Within the framework of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), several goals specifically address energy and natural resources, underscoring the importance of promoting sustainable practices and ensuring access to clean energy for all. SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) collectively aim to advance sustainable energy and natural resource management practices. Energy poverty (SDG 7) and greenhouse gas emissions (SDG 13) represent significant hurdles on the path toward achieving sustainable development goals in Africa. The dual challenges of energy poverty and climate change necessitate urgent action to transition toward cleaner, more sustainable energy systems. By investing in renewable energy infrastructure, improving energy efficiency, and promoting inclusive energy access, African nations can unlock opportunities for economic growth, environmental conservation, and social development.

In the heart of Africa lies Nigeria, a nation richly endowed with a plethora of energy resources, ranging from conventional non-renewable sources to vast reserves of renewable energy like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass [ 14 , 15 ] ( Tables 1 – 3 ). Despite this wealth of resources, Nigeria continues to grapple with the scourge of energy poverty, with a significant portion of its population deprived of access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services. This dissonance between resource abundance and energy prosperity accentuates the complexities inherent in addressing energy poverty. Nigeria’s energy landscape presents a paradoxical narrative. On the one hand, the country boasts substantial reserves of oil and natural gas, making it a prominent player in the global energy market. On the other hand, the potential offered by renewable energy sources remains largely untapped, despite their abundance and suitability for sustainable development. As a result, millions of Nigerians continue to endure the hardships of inadequate energy access, hindering socio-economic progress and perpetuating cycles of poverty.

Energy resources of Nigeria.

Regional distribution of energy research centers in Nigeria.

Nigeria’s energy reserve/capacity.

According to the World Bank, nearly 45% of Nigeria’s population still struggles with the darkness of energy deprivation, equating to approximately 99 million individuals living without access to electricity [ 16 ]. This staggering statistic underscores the urgent need for comprehensive strategies and concerted efforts to bridge the gap between energy availability and accessibility, ensuring that Nigeria’s energy wealth translates into tangible benefits for its citizens. The urgent need for a transition to cleaner energy sources offers a dual opportunity for Nigeria [ 7 ]. Firstly, it presents a chance to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts associated with fossil fuel dependency, including air pollution and climate change. Secondly, it unlocks potential economic benefits through enhanced energy access ( Table 2 ) and the adoption of modular renewable energy technologies, fostering economic growth and social development. Despite facing numerous challenges within its energy sector, including inadequate electricity generation capacity and unreliable power supply, Nigeria stands at a pivotal moment in its energy transition journey. By prioritizing renewable energy investments, implementing supportive policies, and fostering innovation, Nigeria can pave the way toward a sustainable and resilient energy future.

2. Energy and natural resource potential in Nigeria

Nigeria boasts significant energy and natural resource potential, including vast reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, and renewable energy sources such as solar and wind ( Table 1 ) [ 9 , 10 ]. However, challenges such as energy poverty, inadequate infrastructure, and environmental degradation accentuate the need for sustainable development strategies. With substantial proven oil reserves estimated at over 37 billion barrels, Nigeria ranks among the top oil-producing nations globally. The Niger Delta region, particularly, has been a focal point of oil exploration and production, driving significant revenue for the country. Additionally, Nigeria’s vast natural gas reserves have positioned it as a key player in the global liquefied natural gas (LNG) market. Leveraging these resources efficiently presents an avenue for economic diversification and energy security.

Beyond oil and gas, Nigeria has significant reserves of coal, lithium, uranium, cobalt, and rare earth elements (REEs). Coal, historically utilized for electricity generation and industrial processes, faces environmental challenges but is still utilized to a limited extent for energy production [ 13 ]. Lithium-ion batteries have become increasingly important for storing energy from renewable sources like solar and wind power. Lithium, a lightweight metal, is a key component of these batteries due to its high energy density and rechargeability. Demand for lithium has surged with the growth of electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage systems. Uranium is a radioactive element used as fuel in nuclear power plants to produce electricity. Nuclear energy is a low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels, emitting negligible greenhouse gases during electricity generation. Cobalt is another critical component of lithium-ion batteries, serving to stabilize their performance and increase energy density. REEs in the Southwestern and Southeastern of Nigeria are a group of 17 elements crucial for various clean energy technologies, including wind turbines, electric vehicles, and energy-efficient lighting. These minerals are essential for the production of magnets, catalysts, and phosphors used in these applications.

2.1 Carbon emissions and footprint in Nigeria

Despite its rich energy resources, Nigeria stands at a crossroads, grappling with the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions and environmental degradation while harnessing its abundant energy and natural resources to drive sustainable development [ 17 ]. Rapid urbanization, industrialization, energy consumption patterns, and deforestation contribute to rising emissions, exacerbating climate change impacts, and threatening public health and ecosystems. As Nigeria continues to develop and industrialize, the issue of carbon emissions and its environmental footprint has become increasingly significant. As of 2022, carbon emissions from the power sector in Nigeria reached around 11.8 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. The country’s energy sector, dominated by fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal, remains a primary source of carbon emissions. Additionally, deforestation, agricultural practices, and industrial activities contribute to the nation’s carbon footprint.

In line with the country’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Nigeria has committed to cutting emissions by 20% by 2030, comparable to current levels, with the potential to cut emissions by up to 45% with assistance from international sources [ 18 ]. To achieve this, the government has taken several steps to encourage investment in renewable energy, such as creating a feed-in tariff system for renewable energy projects and establishing the Nigerian Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy (NREEEP) [ 18 ]. With the efforts to diversify the energy mix and promote renewable energy sources, the transition remains gradual, resulting in persistent reliance on carbon-intensive fuels. Nigeria recently took on three significant pledges at the Conference of Parties (COP26) in 2021, two of which are to reach net-zero emissions by 2060.

However, to mitigate greenhouse gases (GHGs) and CO 2 emissions, international organizations such as; the United Nations (U.N.), European Union (E.U.), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have suggested carbon tax should be a policy instrument for achieving a given reduction target among numerous administrative reforms and policies including energy transition, environmental related taxes, emission disclosure standards, and emission trading schemes [ 19 ]. The carbon tax imposed on CO 2 emissions or carbon content of fossil fuels prevents enterprises from using excess fossil fuels [ 18 ]. In spite of the challenges, Nigeria possesses significant opportunities to mitigate its carbon emissions and pursue sustainable development pathways. Transitioning toward renewable energy sources presents a viable solution to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and curb emissions. Effective policy frameworks and institutional mechanisms are essential to drive carbon mitigation efforts in Nigeria. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, enforcing environmental standards, and incentivizing low-carbon investments are crucial steps toward achieving emissions reduction targets.

2.1.1 Nigeria’s policies on carbon emissions

Nigeria, like many other countries, has recognized the importance of addressing carbon emissions and reducing carbon footprints to mitigate climate change and promote sustainable development. Various Energy Policies and Initiatives such as Nigeria’s National Energy Policy outline the country’s energy development goals and strategies. The policy emphasizes the importance of sustainable energy development, including increasing the share of renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing environmental impacts, including carbon emissions. Nigeria is also implementing policies and programs to promote renewable energy development as part of its energy mix diversification and carbon emissions reduction efforts. This includes the National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy, which aims to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass, and hydropower to Nigeria’s energy supply. Nigerian has also launched the Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP), which seeks to increase the use of renewable energy to 30% by 2030. The plan also aims to increase energy efficiency by 20%.

Improving energy efficiency is a priority in Nigeria’s energy policies to reduce carbon emissions and enhance energy security. The Energy Commission of Nigeria and Standard Organization of Nigeria have introduced energy efficiency standards and labeling programs for appliances and equipment, as well as initiatives to promote energy-efficient practices in industries, buildings, transportation, and agriculture. Also, other policies are focusing on expanding natural gas infrastructure and increasing domestic gas utilization for power generation, industrial processes, and transportation to reduce carbon emissions.

While Nigeria has not yet implemented a comprehensive carbon pricing mechanism, discussions around carbon pricing and market-based mechanisms to incentivize emission reductions and promote low-carbon investments have been ongoing. The government has expressed interest in exploring options such as emissions trading schemes and carbon taxation to mitigate carbon emissions. Nigeria is a signatory to international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, which commits countries to take actions to mitigate climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Nigeria’s energy policies align with its commitments under the Paris Agreement, and the country has submitted its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining its targets for emission reductions and climate adaptation measures.

Nigeria is investing in research and development initiatives to support clean energy technologies, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and other innovative solutions to reduce carbon emissions from energy production and consumption. Overall, Nigeria’s energy policies aim to promote sustainable energy development, reduce reliance on fossil fuels, and mitigate carbon emissions to address climate change challenges while supporting economic growth and energy security objectives. Continued implementation of these policies, coupled with efforts to strengthen institutional capacity, mobilize investments, and enhance international cooperation, will be crucial for achieving Nigeria’s energy and climate goals.

An increasing body of research has highlighted efforts to reduce global energy-related CO 2 emissions in order to reach the carbon neutral (CN) objective [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Carbon neutrality is attained when the amount of CO 2 emitted into the atmosphere through economic activities is equal to the amount of CO 2 absorbed in carbon sinks such as soil, forest, and ocean through a process known as carbon sequestration [ 23 ]. According to Zou et al. [ 21 ], carbon neutrality is the point at which human economic interference with global climate systems has negligible discernible consequences.

3. Energy Commission of Nigeria Research Centers

The Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN), established by Act No. 62 of 1979 and subsequently amended by Act No. 32 of 1988 and Act No. 19 of 1989, plays a pivotal role in strategically planning and coordinating national energy policies across diverse domains. Empowered by its mandate, the ECN functions as the primary governmental body responsible for overseeing energy sector planning and policy implementation. It actively advocates for the diversification of energy sources, promoting the development and efficient utilization of existing resources, while also leading the integration of new and alternative energy options such as Solar, Wind, Biomass, and Nuclear Energy. In addition to its core responsibilities, the Commission serves as a central repository for gathering and disseminating information on national energy policy. It acts as a focal point for resolving technical issues arising from policy implementation and provides advisory services to the Federal and State Governments on energy-related matters upon request. The ECN also develops periodic master plans for the balanced and coordinated advancement of energy in Nigeria, in consultation with relevant government agencies. These plans include recommendations for exploiting new energy sources and other initiatives deemed beneficial to national interests. The Commission establishes guidelines for the utilization of different energy types for specific purposes and investigates funding adequacy in the energy sector, offering recommendations to the government on aspects such as research and development, production, and distribution. It analyzes and publishes pertinent energy information from diverse sources and monitors the sector’s performance in alignment with government energy policies.

The ECN collaborates with international organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency, International Renewable Energy Agency, and World Energy Council to foster global partnerships and knowledge exchange. It also promotes training and capacity-building initiatives within the energy sector and undertakes any additional tasks as directed by the government. To enhance its coordination ( Figure 1 ) and formulation of well-informed policies regarding renewable energy, energy efficiency, and resource management, the ECN established energy research centers to advance knowledge and technologies across diverse energy sectors, encompassing fossil fuels, renewable energy, and energy efficiency ( Table 2 ). The ECN meticulously formulates long-term energy plans, strategies, and forecasts to guide Nigeria’s energy sector toward sustainability. It systematically collects, analyzes, and disseminates energy data and statistics through its research Centers to inform policy decisions, guide investment planning, and facilitate project implementation nationwide.

Coordination of different research centers under ECN.

Moreover, the ECN assumes a pivotal role in advocating for renewable energy sources, offering incentives, technical support, and capacity-building initiatives to promote the adoption and utilization of renewable energy technologies across Nigeria. Through fostering innovation, collaboration, and knowledge exchange, the ECN remains resolute in propelling Nigeria’s energy transition toward a sustainable and prosperous future. Research centers under energy commissions typically focus on various aspects of energy production, distribution, efficiency, and sustainability. The mandates of ECN’s energy research centers are tailored to leverage the comparative advantages of the geopolitical regions in which they are situated ( Figure 2 ). These mandates are designed to align with the goals and priorities established by the overseeing energy commission.

Distribution of energy research centers in the six geopolitical regions of Nigeria.

3.1 National Center for Energy Research and Development (NCERD)

NCERD established in the Southeast (SE) region of Nigeria is one of the flagship research Centers under the Energy Commission of Nigeria. It focuses on conducting research, development, and demonstration activities in various areas of energy, including renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency, and energy policy analysis.

3.2 National Center for Hydropower Research and Development (NCHRD)

NCHRD established in the North-Central (NC) region of Nigeria is dedicated to research and development efforts related to hydropower generation in Nigeria. It aims to explore the country’s hydropower potential, improve hydropower technologies, and promote sustainable hydropower development practices.

3.3 National Center for Petroleum Research and Development (NCPRD)

NCPRD established in the North-East (NE) focuses on research and development activities in the petroleum sector, including exploration, production, refining, and utilization of petroleum resources. It aims to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and competitiveness of Nigeria’s petroleum industry.

3.4 National Center for Energy Efficiency and Conservation (NCEEC)

NCEEC established in the South-West (SW) region focuses on research and development efforts aimed at promoting energy efficiency and conservation practices across different sectors of the economy. It conducts studies, develops standards, and provides recommendations to improve energy efficiency and reduce energy consumption in Nigeria.

3.5 The Sokoto Energy Research Center (SERC)

SERC established in the North-West (NW) of Nigeria is one of the prominent research Centers under the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN). The Center is specifically focused on research and development efforts related to renewable energy and energy efficiency in Nigeria, with a particular emphasis on the North-West region.

3.6 National Center for Energy and Environment (NCEE)

NCEE was established in the South-South (SS) region of Nigeria and is one of the research Centers under the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN). The NCEE focuses on research, development, and promotion of sustainable energy and environmental practices in Nigeria. NCEE conducts research on various aspects of energy and the environment, including renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency, climate change mitigation, and environmental sustainability. The Center explores innovative solutions to address energy challenges while minimizing environmental impacts.

4. Collaborative strategies of the energy research centers

Energy Research Centers (ERCs) work together to create a research ecosystem characterized by collaboration, innovation, and impact. By establishing collaborative networks, engaging in joint research projects, sharing resources, providing training and capacity-building opportunities, disseminating knowledge, and engaging in policy advocacy, research centers contribute to the advancement of knowledge, the development of human capital, and the translation of research into meaningful societal outcomes. As Nigeria continues to navigate the complex challenges of energy security and sustainability, the role of energy research centers becomes increasingly crucial. These centers serve as hubs of innovation, driving advancements in technology, policy, and industry practices. Collaboration among these centers can foster innovation, drive technological advancements, and accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources. To achieve visible progress in the research and development programs of the Commission, ERCs must work together to establish a research ecosystem and realize Nigeria’s vision of becoming a regional renewable energy powerhouse. This entails employing various strategies to address the nation’s energy needs and foster sustainable development. Key strategies include:

4.1 Knowledge sharing and collaboration

Knowledge sharing and collaboration among energy research centers in Nigeria are fundamental pillars for fostering innovation and addressing the nation’s energy challenges. By actively exchanging insights, data, and expertise, these centers collectively advance research, drive technological innovations, and accelerate the adoption of sustainable energy solutions. The energy research centers across Nigeria have established platforms for sharing research findings, best practices, and resources. Platforms for knowledge sharing and collaboration include online forums, workshops, seminars, and conferences. These are spaces established for researchers to interact and exchange ideas. These platforms facilitate the dissemination of knowledge and the formation of collaborative networks to address common challenges and leverage diverse expertise. This sharing of knowledge fosters a culture of collaboration and accelerates progress toward renewable energy goals.

4.2 Interdisciplinary research initiatives

Interdisciplinary research initiatives are pivotal for energy research centers in Nigeria to address the multifaceted challenges of the energy sector comprehensively. By integrating expertise from diverse disciplines, such as engineering, environmental science, economics, social sciences, and policy studies, these initiatives generate innovative solutions that are both technically sound and socially relevant. Energy research centers foster interdisciplinary research initiatives by identifying research priorities that require interdisciplinary approaches such as renewable energy integration, energy access in rural communities, sustainable urban planning, and the socioeconomic impacts of energy transitions. By aligning research agendas with societal needs, interdisciplinary initiatives can produce research outcomes with tangible benefits. Also, energy research centers initiate cross-cutting research projects that leverage expertise from different disciplines to address complex energy challenges. For example, a research project on solar energy deployment may involve engineers designing efficient photovoltaic systems, environmental scientists assessing the environmental impacts, economists analyzing the cost-effectiveness, and sociologists studying community acceptance and participation. By integrating diverse perspectives, these projects can produce holistic solutions that account for technical, environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Energy research centers also promote interdisciplinary training and education programs to prepare researchers for collaborative work across disciplines. These programs include interdisciplinary courses, workshops, seminars, and experiential learning opportunities. By fostering interdisciplinary skills such as communication, teamwork, and problem-solving, energy research centers cultivate a new generation of researchers capable of addressing complex energy challenges in a holistic manner. These initiatives can provide comprehensive solutions to complex energy issues and facilitate the integration of renewable energy technologies into Nigeria’s energy landscape.

4.3 Joint funding and resource mobilization

Pooling resources through joint funding mechanisms enhances the capacity of energy research centers to undertake ambitious projects. Collaborative grant applications and partnerships with government agencies, industry stakeholders, and international organizations provide the necessary funding and support for impactful research endeavors. ERCs form consortia and networks with other research institutions, universities, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to access funding opportunities and share resources. Collaborative research consortia strengthen grant applications, enhance competitiveness, and enable resource sharing among partner institutions. Networks facilitate knowledge exchange, collaboration, and coordination of research efforts across different organizations. Energy commission research centers (ECRCs) establish strategic alliances with academic institutions, research laboratories, and industry associations through formal agreements such as memorandum of understandings (MoUs) to facilitate joint funding and resource mobilization efforts. These alliances enable collaborative research, technology transfer, and capacity-building initiatives that benefit all parties involved.

4.4 Infrastructure sharing and capacity building

Sharing research infrastructure and facilities optimizes resource utilization and reduces duplication of efforts. Additionally, collaborative training programs and workshops can enhance the skills and expertise of researchers, technicians, and students across different centers, thereby strengthening the research ecosystem.

4.5 Stakeholder engagement and policy advocacy

ERCs collectively engage with policymakers, industry leaders, and civil society organizations to advocate for supportive policies and regulations conducive to renewable energy development. By providing evidence-based recommendations and expert insights, research centers influence decision-making processes and drive the adoption of renewable energy technologies.

5. Recent projects by Nigeria’s energy research centers

Through various initiatives and collaborations, the ECN’s research centers have made significant strides in harnessing clean energy resources, promoting sustainable livelihoods, and remedying environmental issues. One of the notable projects undertaken by the ECN’s research centers is the Professional Training Courses on Solar Photovoltaic Installation (SPVI). In collaboration with partners such as the European Union (EU), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), and United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the centers provided comprehensive training to equip individuals with the skills needed to install and maintain solar photovoltaic systems. Furthermore, special attention was given to empowering women and youth through training programs focused on renewable energy technologies, thus fostering inclusivity and diversity within the sector. In addition to SPVI, the ECN’s research centers conducted training sessions on Solar Thermal Systems for Experts and Professionals, in collaboration with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). These programs aim to enhance the expertise and proficiency of professionals in utilizing solar thermal systems, thereby contributing to the widespread adoption of sustainable energy solutions across various sectors.

Recognizing the importance of energy efficiency in mitigating environmental impact and reducing energy consumption, the ECN’s research centers have undertaken several initiatives in this area. Through the Training-of-Trainers (ToT) program on Energy Audit and Energy Management, funded by the German Government under the Nigerian Energy Support Program (NESP), professionals were equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to conduct energy audits and implement effective energy management practices. By promoting energy efficiency measures, these initiatives not only contribute to cost savings but also help in reducing carbon emissions and enhancing sustainability. Furthermore, the centers have spearheaded activities aimed at retrofitting incandescent lamps with compact fluorescent lamps (CFL). This simple yet effective measure not only helps in reducing energy consumption but also serves as a practical demonstration of energy-efficient lighting solutions. By promoting the adoption of CFLs, the ECN’s research centers play a vital role in advocating for sustainable practices at the grassroots level.

In line with their commitment to environmental sustainability, the ECN’s research centers have developed biogas technologies as a renewable energy source. By utilizing organic waste materials, such as agricultural residues and animal manure, these technologies not only generate clean energy but also contribute to waste management and environmental conservation. Moreover, the centers have been actively involved in environmental forensics and remediation for energy-related activities. By conducting thorough assessments and implementing remedial measures, they address environmental concerns arising from energy utilization practices, thereby promoting responsible and sustainable energy development. The Energy Commission of Nigeria’s research centers have been instrumental in driving forward the agenda of renewable energy, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability. Through their pioneering projects and collaborative efforts, they have not only advanced technological innovations but also empowered individuals and communities to embrace clean energy solutions. As Nigeria strives toward a greener and more sustainable future, the ECN’s research centers continue to play a pivotal role in shaping the country’s energy landscape for the better.

6. Role of energy research centers in reducing carbon footprint

In Nigeria where energy demands are high and natural resources are abundant reducing the carbon emissions and footprint across various sectors is crucial for achieving sustainable development goals [ 24 ]. ERCs play a pivotal role in research and development efforts to reduce energy-related CO 2 emissions in order to reach the carbon neutral (CN) objective. Carbon neutrality is attained when the amount of CO 2 emitted into the atmosphere through economic activities is equal to the amount of CO 2 absorbed in carbon sinks such as soil, forest, and ocean through a process known as carbon sequestration [ 23 ]. According to Zou et al. [ 21 ], carbon neutrality is the point at which human economic interference with climate systems has negligible discernible consequences. Carbon conversion, emission reduction, and transfer are some of the strategies targeted at achieving carbon neutrality, although many of them are still poorly defined or executed in Nigeria. ERCs’ contributions to achieving carbon neutrality can be categorized into several key areas:

6.1 Advancing clean energy technologies

At the heart of ERC’s mission lies the development of clean and renewable energy technologies. ERCs invest significant resources into exploring and refining alternative sources of energy such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power. as well as energy storage solutions like batteries and hydrogen fuel cells. ERCs conduct fundamental and applied research to improve efficiency, affordability, and scalability. ERCs are at the forefront of developing clean energy technologies tailored to the country’s specific needs and resources. By harnessing the power of innovation, they pave the way for a future where carbon-intensive fossil fuels are gradually phased out in favor of cleaner alternatives. By investing in indigenous clean energy solutions, these centers help reduce Nigeria’s reliance on fossil fuels and lower its carbon emissions. ERCs often serve as testbeds for demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of emerging clean energy technologies at scale. By showcasing real-world applications, they help bridge the gap between laboratory research and commercial deployment, thereby accelerating the adoption of clean energy solutions.

6.2 Enhancing energy efficiency

Improving energy efficiency is a key strategy for reducing carbon footprint, and ERCs play a vital role in this endeavor. Through research and development initiatives, they identify opportunities to optimize energy consumption in industries, transportation, and buildings. By promoting the adoption of energy-efficient technologies and practices, they contribute to lowering energy demand and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. This includes designing more efficient appliances, and industrial processes, as well as implementing smart grid technologies and energy management systems. By reducing energy waste and maximizing the use of resources, energy research Centers contribute significantly to lowering carbon emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. In addition to developing new sources of clean energy, energy research Centers are deeply committed to improving energy efficiency across all sectors of the economy. Through rigorous analysis and experimentation, researchers identify opportunities to optimize energy consumption in industries, transportation, and buildings. This includes designing more efficient appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes, as well as implementing smart grid technologies and energy management systems.

6.3 Promoting renewable energy integration

ERCs collaborate with stakeholders to promote the seamless integration of renewable energy into Nigeria’s energy mix. They work on grid modernization initiatives, energy storage solutions, and demand-side management strategies to facilitate the integration of solar, wind, and other renewable sources into the existing energy infrastructure. By bolstering the reliability and stability of renewable energy systems, the Centers accelerate the transition toward a low-carbon energy future. However, the deployment of renewable energy technologies remains relatively low, constrained by challenges such as policy inconsistency, limited financing options, and technical barriers. Promoting renewable energy integration is essential for reducing carbon footprints and transitioning toward a more sustainable energy future.

6.4 Advancing carbon capture and storage (CCS)

Given Nigeria’s significant role as an oil-producing nation, ERCs focus on developing carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies to mitigate emissions from fossil fuel-based industries. These Centers conduct research on cost-effective CO 2 capture methods and explore suitable storage sites, laying the groundwork for the deployment of CCS projects across the country. By capturing and sequestering carbon emissions, they help Nigeria meet its climate goals while sustaining its energy-intensive industries. They also investigate safe and effective ways to store captured carbon underground, preventing it from entering the atmosphere and exacerbating global warming. By advancing CCS solutions, energy research centers offer a viable pathway for reducing the carbon footprint of fossil fuel-based energy generation while facilitating a smoother transition to cleaner energy sources.

6.5 Policy development and advocacy

ERCs collaborate with the government and other stakeholders to develop and advocate for policies that promote clean energy adoption and carbon reduction initiatives. They provide evidence-based recommendations, conduct policy analysis, and facilitate stakeholder dialogs to inform the design and implementation of effective energy policies. By driving policy change and creating an enabling regulatory environment, ERCs support Nigeria’s transition toward a sustainable, low-carbon energy sector. ERCs advocate for renewable energy incentives, energy efficiency standards, carbon pricing mechanisms, and other policy measures to promote sustainable energy development, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigate climate change impacts.

ERCs have been instrumental in advocating for renewable energy deployment and supporting policy reforms to create an enabling environment for sustainable energy development in Nigeria. Through policy analysis, research reports, and stakeholder engagement, ERCs have provided evidence-based recommendations to policymakers, legislators, and regulators on the need for renewable energy incentives, feed-in tariffs, tax incentives, and regulatory reforms. This advocacy has led to the development and implementation of supportive policies and programs, such as the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP), Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP), and Renewable Energy Policy (RE Policy), which aim to promote the deployment of renewable energy technologies and attract investment in the sector. ERCs have also collaborated with government agencies, industry associations, and civil society organizations to raise awareness about the socio-economic and environmental benefits of renewable energy and build consensus for policy action.

6.6 Capacity building and knowledge sharing

ERCs play a crucial role in building local capacity and fostering knowledge sharing in the energy sector. Through training programs, workshops, and technical assistance initiatives, they empower researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals with the skills and expertise needed to drive innovation and sustainable development. By nurturing a culture of learning and collaboration, these Centers contribute to long-term solutions for reducing Nigeria’s carbon footprint and building resilience to climate change.

ERCs play a vital role in education and capacity building by providing training programs, workshops, and seminars to build the skills and knowledge of energy professionals, policymakers, and stakeholders. They offer professional development programs, and hands-on training in renewable energy technologies, energy management practices, and sustainability principles. ERCs also support research scholarships, fellowships, and internships to cultivate the next generation of energy leaders and innovators, fostering a skilled workforce capable of driving sustainable energy transitions.

ERCs raise public awareness and promote knowledge dissemination on sustainable energy issues through outreach programs, public lectures, and media campaigns. They communicate scientific findings, policy insights, and best practices to inform and empower communities, decision-makers, and stakeholders to take action on energy sustainability. ERCs engage in community outreach, environmental education, and public engagement initiatives to foster a culture of energy conservation, environmental stewardship, and sustainable development at the local, national, and global levels.

Overall, ERCs play a multifaceted role in advancing sustainable energy development by driving innovation, informing policy, building capacity, fostering collaboration, and raising awareness. Their contributions are essential for achieving the goals of energy security, environmental protection, and socio-economic prosperity in a rapidly changing energy landscape. By harnessing the collective expertise and resources of ERCs, societies can accelerate the transition to a sustainable energy future and address the pressing challenges of climate change, energy poverty, and resource scarcity facing the world today.

6.7 Technology transfer and commercialization

ERCs facilitate technology transfer and commercialization by translating research findings into practical applications, products, and services for the market. They collaborate with industry partners, startups, and entrepreneurs to pilot, scale, and commercialize innovative energy technologies and solutions. ERCs provide technical assistance, incubation support, and access to funding and resources to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies, fostering economic growth, job creation, and market competitiveness in the energy sector.

6.8 Specialized training programs and courses

ERCs organize specialized training programs, workshops, and courses tailored to various aspects of energy research, technology, and management. These programs cover topics such as renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency measures, energy policy and regulation, sustainable energy systems, and climate change mitigation strategies. Participants, including students, researchers, professionals, policymakers, and industry stakeholders, benefit from hands-on learning experiences, expert lectures, and interactive sessions conducted by leading experts in the field. The training programs are designed to enhance participants’ technical skills, analytical capabilities, and problem-solving abilities, preparing them for careers in the energy sector and related industries.

6.9 Access to state-of-the-art laboratories and research facilities

ERCs provide access to state-of-the-art laboratories, research facilities, and experimental infrastructure to support hands-on learning, experimentation, and technology development. These facilities are equipped with advanced instrumentation, testing equipment, computational tools, and simulation software necessary for conducting experiments, analyzing data, and validating research findings. Students, researchers, and industry collaborators have the opportunity to work in interdisciplinary teams, collaborate on research projects, and leverage cutting-edge technologies to address real-world energy challenges. Access to research facilities fosters innovation, collaboration, and knowledge exchange among stakeholders, leading to breakthroughs in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and clean technologies.

Capacity building and training programs offered by ERCs are essential for developing a skilled workforce, fostering innovation, and advancing knowledge in the energy sector. By investing in human capital development, ERCs contribute to building a sustainable energy future and addressing the pressing global challenges of energy security, environmental sustainability, and climate change mitigation. These programs empower individuals to become leaders, innovators, and change agents in shaping the transition to a cleaner, more resilient energy system. The impact of Energy Research Centers (ERCs) in Nigeria is profound, with their initiatives contributing significantly to sustainable energy development across various sectors.

7. Nigeria’s energy transition unlocking energy and natural resources for sustainable development

With an increasing global focus on sustainability and climate change mitigation, Nigeria’s energy transition is gaining prominence [ 9 ]. Energy transition is driven by a combination of factors, including policy frameworks, technological advancements, and economic imperatives. Nigeria has implemented various policy frameworks to promote renewable energy adoption and energy efficiency. The National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy (NREEEP), launched in 2015, sets ambitious targets for increasing the share of renewable energy in the energy mix. Additionally, initiatives such as the Rural Electrification Agency’s Mini-Grids Program aim to enhance energy access in rural areas through decentralized renewable energy solutions. The deployment of renewable energy technologies, particularly solar and hydroelectric power, has witnessed significant progress in Nigeria. Large-scale solar projects, such as the Katsina Solar Power Plant, highlight the country’s potential to harness solar energy resources.

Nigeria’s energy transition is a complex and multifaceted process that requires concerted efforts from policymakers, industry stakeholders, and civil society. While significant progress has been made, addressing existing challenges and capitalizing on emerging opportunities are crucial for advancing toward a sustainable energy future. By leveraging its abundant renewable energy resources and fostering an enabling environment for investment and innovation, Nigeria can navigate its energy transition path and contribute to global efforts to mitigate climate change while ensuring energy security and socioeconomic development. In parallel with efforts to reduce carbon emissions, research Centers focus on unlocking Nigeria’s energy and natural resource potential for sustainable development.

8. Challenges and opportunities

Despite progress, the Research Center’s efforts to tackle carbon emissions and unlock energy resources face challenges such as funding constraints, policy barriers, and institutional capacity gaps. Weak governance structures, regulatory inconsistencies, and corruption hinder effective management and equitable distribution of resource revenues. Lack of transparency and accountability in the allocation of licenses and contracts further exacerbates socio-economic inequalities and undermines public trust.

Nigeria’s energy sector is vulnerable to security risks, including militancy, pipeline vandalism, and insurgency activities in oil-producing regions. These challenges disrupt operations, deter investment, and undermine the stability of the energy market, hampering economic growth and development. The adverse effects of climate change, such as rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events, pose significant risks to Nigeria’s energy and natural resource sector. Increased frequency of droughts, floods, and storms threatens infrastructure, agriculture, and livelihoods, necessitating adaptation and resilience measures.

9. Conclusion

In conclusion, research Centers play a crucial role in addressing carbon emissions and unlocking energy resources for sustainable development in Nigeria. By driving innovation, shaping policy, and fostering collaboration, research Centers contribute to a greener, more resilient future for Nigeria. Moving forward, sustained investment, policy support, and cross-sectoral cooperation are essential to realizing Nigeria’s potential as a leader in sustainable energy and natural resource management. ERCs serve as catalysts for advancing clean energy technologies and reducing carbon footprints by conducting R&D, demonstrating technology viability, fostering collaborative partnerships, supporting policy development, educating stakeholders, conducting techno-economic analysis, and nurturing innovation ecosystems. Their multidisciplinary approach and cross-sectoral collaborations are essential for addressing the urgent challenges of climate change and sustainable development.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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• 19. Shahzad U. Environmental taxes, energy consumption, and environmental quality: Theoretical survey with policy implications. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2020; 27 :24848-24862
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Energy and sustainable development in Nigeria: the way forward

• Sunday Olayinka Oyedepo 1  

Energy, Sustainability and Society volume  2 , Article number:  15 ( 2012 ) Cite this article

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Access to clean modern energy services is an enormous challenge facing the African continent because energy is fundamental for socioeconomic development and poverty eradication. Today, 60% to 70% of the Nigerian population does not have access to electricity. There is no doubt that the present power crisis afflicting Nigeria will persist unless the government diversifies the energy sources in domestic, commercial, and industrial sectors and adopts new available technologies to reduce energy wastages and to save cost. This review examines a set of energy policy interventions, which can make a major contribution to the sustainable economic, environmental, and social development of Africa's most populated country , Nigeria. Energy efficiency leads to important social benefits, such as reducing the energy bills for poor households. From an economic point of view, implementing the country's renewable energy target will have significant costs, but these can partly be offset by selling carbon credits according to the rules of the ‘Clean Development Mechanism’ agreed some 10 years ago, which will result in indirect health benefits.

Nigeria could benefit from the targeted interventions that would reduce the local air pollution and help the country to tackle greenhouse gas emissions. Many factors that need to be considered and appropriately addressed in the shift to its sustainable energy future are examined in this article. These include a full exploitation and promotion of renewable energy resources, energy efficiency practices, as well as the application of energy conservation measures in various sectors such as in the construction of industrial, residential, and office buildings, in transportation, etc.

Energy plays the most vital role in the economic growth, progress, and development, as well as poverty eradication and security of any nation. Uninterrupted energy supply is a vital issue for all countries today. Future economic growth crucially depends on the long-term availability of energy from sources that are affordable, accessible, and environmentally friendly. Security, climate change, and public health are closely interrelated with energy[ 1 ]. Energy is an important factor in all the sectors of any country's economy. The standard of living of a given country can be directly related to the per capita energy consumption. The recent world's energy crisis is due to two reasons: the rapid population growth and the increase in the living standard of whole societies. The per capita energy consumption is a measure of the per capita income as well as a measure of the prosperity of a nation[ 2 ].

Energy supports the provision of basic needs such as cooked food, a comfortable living temperature, lighting, the use of appliances, piped water or sewerage, essential health care (refrigerated vaccines, emergency, and intensive care), educational aids, communication (radio, television, electronic mail, the World Wide Web), and transport. Energy also fuels productive activities including agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, industry, and mining. Conversely, a lack of access to energy contributes to poverty and deprivation and can contribute to the economic decline. Energy and poverty reduction are not only closely connected with each other, but also with the socioeconomic development, which involves productivity, income growth, education, and health[ 3 ].

The energy crisis, which has engulfed Nigeria for almost two decades, has been enormous and has largely contributed to the incidence of poverty by paralyzing industrial and commercial activities during this period. The Council for Renewable Energy of Nigeria estimates that power outages brought about a loss of 126 billion naira (US$ 984.38 million) annually[ 4 ]. Apart from the huge income loss, it has also resulted in health hazards due to the exposure to carbon emissions caused by constant use of ‘backyard generators’ in different households and business enterprises, unemployment, and high cost of living leading to a deterioration of living conditions.

Moreover, according to the Central Bank estimate in 1985, Nigeria consumed 8,771,863 tonnes of oil equivalent[ 5 ]. This is equal to about 180,000 barrels of oil per day. Since then, oil consumption in Nigeria has drastically increased. The effect of this increase on the economy relying solely on revenue from oil is tremendous. Also, the Department for Petroleum Resources[ 6 ] reported an amount of petroleum of more than 78% of the total energy consumption in Nigeria. In the present predicament as a nation, it is obvious that depending mainly on fossil fuel (petroleum) is not enough to meet the energy needs of the country. Since Nigeria is blessed with abundant renewable energy resources such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, tidal, and biomass, there is a need to harness these resources and chart a new energy future for Nigeria. In this regard, the government has a responsibility to make renewable energy available and affordable to all.

Many indigenous researchers have looked into the availability of renewable energy resources in Nigeria with a view to establishing their viability in the country. Onyebuchi[ 7 ] estimated the technical potential of solar energy in Nigeria with a 5% device conversion efficiency put at 15.0 × 10 14  kJ of useful energy annually. This equates to about 258.62 million barrels of oil equivalent annually, which corresponds to the current national annual fossil fuel production in the country. This will also amount to about 4.2 × 10 5 GW/h of electricity production annually, which is about 26 times the recent annual electricity production of 16,000 GW/h in the country. In their work, Chineke and Igwiro[ 8 ] show that Nigeria receives abundant solar energy that can be usefully harnessed with an annual average daily solar radiation of about 5.25 kW h/m 2 /day. This varies between 3.5 kW h/m 2 /day at the coastal areas and 7 kW h/m 2 /day at the northern boundary. The average amount of sunshine hours all over the country is estimated to be about 6.5 h. This gives an average annual solar energy intensity of 1,934.5 kW h/m 2 /year; thus, over the course of a year, an average of 6,372,613 PJ/year (approximately 1,770 TW h/year) of solar energy falls on the entire land area of Nigeria. This is about 120,000times the total annual average electrical energy generated by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN). With a 10% conservative conversion efficiency, the available solar energy resource is about 23 times the Energy Commission of Nigeria's (ECN) projection of the total final energy demand for Nigeria in the year 2030[ 9 ]. To enhance the developmental trend in the country, there is every need to support the existing unreliable energy sector with a sustainable source of power supply through solar energy.

Moreover, many indigenous researchers have also explored the availability of wind energy sources in Nigeria with a view of implementing them if there is a likelihood for their usage. Adekoya and Adewale[ 10 ] analyzed the wind speed data of 30 stations in Nigeria, determining the annual mean wind speeds and power flux densities, which vary from 1.5 to 4.1 m/s to 5.7 to 22.5 W/m 2 , respectively. Fagbenle and Karayiannis[ 11 ] carried out a 10-year wind data analysis from 1979 to 1988, considering the surface and upper winds as well as the maximum gusts, whereas Ngala et al.[ 12 ] performed a statistical analysis of the wind energy potential in Maiduguri, Borno State, using the Weibull distribution and 10-year (1995 to 2004) wind data. A cost benefit analysis was also performed using the wind energy conversion systems for electric power generation and supply in the State. Each of these reports point to the fact that the nation is blessed with a vast opportunity for harvesting wind for electricity production, particularly at the core northern states, the mountainous parts of the central and eastern states, and also the offshore areas, where wind is abundantly available throughout the year. The issue then is for the country to look at ways of harnessing resources towards establishing wind farms in various regions and zones that have been identified as possessing abilities for the harvesting of wind energy.

Akinbami[ 13 ] reported that the total hydroelectric power potential of the country was estimated to be about 8,824 MW with an annual electricity generation potential in excess of 36,000 GW h. This consists of 8,000 MW of large hydropower technology, while the remaining 824 MW is still small-scale hydropower technology. Presently, 24% and 4% of both large and small hydropower potentials, respectively, in the country have been exploited.

Akinbami et al.'s assessment[ 14 ] indicated that the identified feedstock substrate for an economically feasible biogas program in Nigeria includes water lettuce, water hyacinth, dung, cassava leaves, urban refuse, solid (including industrial) waste, agricultural residues, and sewage. The authors' views include the following: Nigeria produces about 227,500 tonnes of fresh animal wastes daily. Since 1 kg of fresh animal wastes produces about 0.03 m 3 gas, then Nigeria could produce about 6.8 million m 3 of biogas every day. In addition to all these, 20 kg of municipal solid wastes per capital has been estimated to be generated in the country annually.

The prime objectives of this paper are (1) to review the current status of the energy resources, the energy demand, and supply in Nigeria and (2) to explore the prospects of utilizing renewable energy resources and to increase the energy efficiency as a possible means of sustainable development in Nigeria.

Energy situation in Nigeria

Nigeria is Africa's energy giant. It is the continent's most prolific oil-producing country, which, along with Libya, accounts for two-thirds of Africa's crude oil reserves. It ranks second to Algeria in natural gas[ 15 ]. Most of Africa's bitumen and lignite reserves are found in Nigeria. In its mix of conventional energy reserves, Nigeria is simply unmatched by any other country on the African continent. It is not surprising therefore that energy export is the mainstay of the Nigerian economy. Also, primary energy resources dominate the nation's industrial raw material endowment.

Several energy resources are available in Nigeria in abundant proportions. The country possesses the world's sixth largest reserve of crude oil. Nigeria has an estimated oil reserve of 36.2 billion barrels. It is increasingly an important gas province with proven reserves of nearly 5,000 billion m 3 . The oil and gas reserves are mainly found and located along the Niger Delta, Gulf of Guinea, and Bight of Bonny. Most of the exploration activities are focused in deep and ultra-deep offshore areas with planned activities in the Chad basin, in the northeast. Coal and lignite reserves are estimated to be 2.7 billion tons, while tar sand reserves represent 31 billion barrels of oil equivalent. The identified hydroelectricity sites have an estimated capacity of about 14,250 MW. Nigeria has significant biomass resources to meet both traditional and modern energy uses, including electricity generation[ 16 ]. Table 1 shows Nigeria's energy reserves/potentials. There has been a supply and demand gap as a result of the inadequate development and inefficient management of the energy sector. The supply of electricity, the country's most used energy resource, has been erratic[ 17 ].

The situation in the rural areas of the country is that most end users depend on fuel wood. Fuel wood is used by over 70% of Nigerians living in the rural areas. Nigeria consumes over 50 million tonnes of fuel wood annually, a rate which exceeds the replenishment rate through various afforestation programs. Sourcing fuel wood for domestic and commercial uses is a major cause of desertification in the arid-zone states and erosion in the southern part of the country. The rate of deforestation is about 350,000 ha/year, which is equivalent to 3.6% of the present area of forests and woodlands, whereas reforestation is only at about 10% of the deforestation rate[ 19 ].

The rural areas, which are generally inaccessible due to the absence of good road networks, have little access to conventional energy such as electricity and petroleum products. Petroleum products such as kerosene and gasoline are purchased in the rural areas at prices 150% in excess of their official pump prices. The daily needs of the rural populace for heat energy are therefore met almost entirely from fuel wood. The sale of fuel wood and charcoal is mostly uncontrolled in the unorganized private sector. The sale of kerosene, electricity and cooking gas is essentially influenced and controlled by the Federal Government or its agencies - the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) in the case of kerosene and cooking gas, and the PHCN in the case of electricity. The policy of the Federal Government had been to subsidize the pricing of locally consumed petroleum products, including electricity. In a bid to make the petroleum downstream sector more efficient and in an attempt to stem petroleum product consumption as a policy focus, the government has reduced and removed subsidies on various energy resources in Nigeria. The various policy options have always engendered price increases of the products[ 20 ].

With the restructuring of the power sector and the imminent privatization of the electricity industry, it is obvious that for logistic and economic reasons especially in the privatized power sector, rural areas that are remote from the grid and/or have low consumption or low power purchase potential will not be attractive to private power investors. Such areas may remain unserved into the distant future[ 21 ].

Meanwhile, electricity is required for such basic developmental services as pipe borne water, health care, telecommunications, and quality education. The poverty eradication and Universal Basic Education programs require energy for success. The absence of reliable energy supply has not only left the rural populace socially backward, but has also left their economic potentials untapped. Fortunately, Nigeria is blessed with abundant renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, biomass, and small hydropower potentials. The logical solution is increased penetration of renewables into the energy supply mix[ 15 ].

Energy consumption pattern in Nigeria

Energy consumption patterns in the world today shows that Nigeria and indeed African countries have the lowest rates of consumption. Nevertheless, Nigeria suffers from an inadequate supply of usable energy due to the rapidly increasing demand, which is typical of a developing economy. Paradoxically, the country is potentially endowed with sustainable energy resources. Nigeria is rich in conventional energy resources, which include oil, national gas, lignite, and coal. It is also well endowed with renewable energy sources such as wood, solar, hydropower, and wind[ 17 ].

The patterns of energy usage in Nigeria's economy can be divided into industrial, transport, commercial, agricultural, and household sectors[ 22 ]. The household sector accounts for the largest share of energy usage in the country - about 65%. This is largely due to the low level of development in all the other sectors.

The major energy-consuming activities in Nigeria's households are cooking, lighting, and use of electrical appliances. Cooking accounts for a staggering 91% of household energy consumption, lighting uses up to 6%, and the remaining 3% can be attributed to the use of basic electrical appliances such as televisions and pressing irons[ 9 ].

The predominant energy resources for domestic and commercial uses in Nigeria are fuel wood, charcoal, kerosene, cooking gas and electricity[ 20 ]. Other sources, though less common, are sawdust, agricultural crop residues of corn stalk, cassava sticks, and, in extreme cases, cow dung. In Nigeria, among the urban dwellers, kerosene and gas are the major cooking fuels. The majority of the people rely on kerosene stoves for domestic cooking, while only a few use gas and electric cookers[ 23 ].

The rural areas have little access to conventional energy such as electricity and petroleum products due to the absence of good road networks. Petroleum products such as kerosene and gasoline are purchased in the rural areas at prices very high in excess of their official pump prices. The rural population, whose needs are often basic, therefore depends to a large extent on fuel wood as a major traditional source of fuel. It has been estimated that about 86% of rural households in Nigeria depend on fuel wood as their source of energy[ 24 ]. A fuel wood supply/demand imbalance in some parts of the country is now a real threat to the energy security of the rural communities[ 22 ].

The energy consumption per capita in Nigeria is very small - about one-sixth of the energy consumed in developed countries. This is directly linked to the level of poverty in the country. Gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita income are indices that are used to measure the economic well-being of a country and its people[ 25 ]. GDP is defined as the total market value of all final goods and services produced within a given country in a given period of time (usually a calendar year). The per capita income refers to how much each individual receives, in monetary terms, of the yearly income that is generated in his/her country through productive activities. That is what each citizen would receive if the yearly income generated by a country from its productive activities were divided equally between everyone.

Current electricity situation in Nigeria

The electricity system in Nigeria centers on PHCN, which accounts for about 98% of the total electricity generation[ 26 ]. Power generation by other agencies such as the Nigerian Electricity Supply Company relies on thermal power for electricity generation unlike PHCN, which relies on both hydro- and thermal power. However, electricity is also a consumer of fuel and energy such as fuel oil, natural gas, and diesel oil. The importance of these sources of energy and fuel for generating electricity has been decreasing in recent years. However, hydropower that is relatively cheaper than these sources has grown to be more important than other sources[ 27 ]. However, more recently, the Power Authority has generated electricity through a mix of both thermal and hydro systems. All the power, distribution, and substations are specially interlinked by a transmission network popularly known as the national grid. The entire electricity generated nationwide is pooled into the National Control Centre, Osogbo, from where electricity is distributed to all parts of Nigeria.

The national electricity grid presently consists of 14 generating stations (3 hydro and 11 thermal) with a total installed capacity of about 8,039 MW as shown in Table 2 . The transmission network is made up of 5,000 km of 330-kV lines, 6,000 km of 132-kV lines, 23 of 330/132-kV substations, with a combined capacity of 6,000 or 4,600 MVA at a utilization factor of 80%. In turn, the 91 of 132/33-kV substations have a combined capacity of 7,800 or 5,800 MVA at a utilization factor of 75%. The distribution sector is comprised of 23,753 km of 33-kV lines, 19,226 km of 11-kV lines, and 679 of 33/11-kV substations. There are also 1,790 distribution transformers and 680 injection substations[ 28 ]. Table 2 shows a summary of the generation capabilities of PHCN power stations as operated in the year 2008 (January to December)[ 29 ].

As it can be seen in Table 2 , the existing plants operate at far below their installed capacity as many of them have units that need to be rehabilitated, retrofitted, and upgraded[ 31 ]. The percentage of generation capability from hydro turbines is 34.89%; from gas turbine, 35.27%; and from steam turbines, 29.84%. The relative contribution of the hydropower stations to the total electricity generation (megawatt per hour) is greater than that of the thermal power stations.

In terms of the consumption of electricity, a classification into three groups has been proposed (industrial, residential, and street light consumption). In 1970, the total electricity consumption stood at 145.3 MW/h; this increased to about 536.9 MW/h in 1980. However, in 2005, the total electricity consumption had increased to 1,873.1 MW/h[ 32 ]. On the generation side, these values of 176.6 MW/h in 1970 increased to 815.1 MW/h in 1980. By the end of 2005, the achieved total electricity generation was 2,997.3 MW/h[ 32 ]. Comparing the per capita power generation to that of other countries, Nigeria has the lowest among the countries, as shown in Table 3 , while the USA has the highest per capita electricity generation.

In spite of the contribution of electricity to the total gross domestic product, it is evident that Nigeria is facing several problems. The incapacity of the electricity subsector to efficiently meet the demand for electricity in the country has been caused by a number of problems, which have been detrimental to economic growth. The Central Bank of Nigeria[ 26 ] has identified nine problems associated with the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) (now PHCN):

Lack of preventive and routine maintenance of NEPA's facilities, resulting in huge energy losses.

Frequent major breakdowns, arising from the use of outdated and heavily overloaded equipment.

Lack of coordination between town planning authorities and PHCN, resulting in poor overall power system planning and overloading of PHCN equipment.

Inadequate generation due to operational/technical problems arising from machine breakdown, low gas pressure, and low water levels.

Poor funding of the organization.

Inadequate budgetary provision and undue delay in release of funds to PHCN.

PHCN's inefficient billing and collection system.

High indebtedness to PHCN by both public and private consumers who are reluctant to pay for electricity consumed when due.

Vandalizing and pilfering of PHCN equipment.

In addition to these, most of the existing electricity plants in Nigeria are underutilized or not functioning at all. Numerous reasons could be sighted as responsible for the underutilization of these plants. Some of which are (1) scarcity of relevant manpower for adequate maintenance and general consumer indiscipline; (2) lack of essential spare parts for maintenance of the plants; (3) absence of local manufacturing capabilities;(4) lack of systematic studies of distribution networks to reduce the extraordinary losses that usually accompany haphazard system expansion; and (5) inability to convert gas flares to a source of electricity[ 33 ].

The inefficiency as well as the inadequate facilities to boost electricity supply also have been major causes of the increasing gap between the demand and the supply of electricity. This could be due to the fact that there are only 14 generating stations in Nigeria (3 hydro and 11 thermal stations). Out of the approximated 8,039 MW of installed capacity in Nigeria, not more than 4,500 MW is ever produced. This is due to poor maintenance, fluctuation in water levels powering the hydro plants, and the loss of electricity in transmission. It could also be due to the 80-MW export of electricity each to the republic of Niger and Benin. ‘Apart from serving as a pillar of wealth creation in Nigeria, electricity is also the nucleus of operations and subsequently the engine of growth for all sectors of the economy’[ 34 ]. It has been indirectly re-echoed that electricity consumption is positively related to economic growth and that the former is a causal factor of the latter. This means that electricity consumption has diverse impacts on a range of socioeconomic activities and consequentially the living standards of Nigerians.

Notwithstanding the above pitfalls that had rendered public electricity supply in Nigeria unreliable and inefficient, the trend of its utilization has grown significantly over the past years. Figure 1 shows the total electricity consumption in megawatts per hour and the various sectorial decompositions. Electricity utilization by the industrial sector has been fairly static because of the unreliable nature of the public electricity supply system in the country. Thus, many companies have resolved to provide their own power-generating sets as sources of electricity, leading to huge transfer costs on their products and services.

Electricity consumption pattern in Nigeria. Adapted from CBN[ 35 ].

Studies and experiences have shown that power generation in the country has been dismal and unable to compare with what has been obtained in smaller African countries. Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN) gave the following performance indicators in Table 4 for Nigeria's electricity sector compared with those of some other countries[ 28 ]. The data for some Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) countries such as Botswana and South Africa are comparable to those of the USA and France. The performance of the Nigerian power sector on the International Best Practices comparative rating is disgraceful. Perhaps, no other sector feels it as much as the manufacturing industrial sector wherein some notable international companies and organizations are on self-generated electricity 24 h/day for the 365 days of each year, as confirmed by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization in 2009[ 36 ]. The survey showed that, on average, manufacturers generated about 72% of the total power required to run their factories.

The Nigerian energy challenge

Nigeria's energy need is on the increase, and its increasing population is not adequately considered in the energy development program. The present urban-centered energy policy is deplorable, as cases of rural and sub-rural energy demand and supply do not reach the center stage of the country's energy development policy. People in rural areas depend on burning wood and traditional biomass for their energy needs, causing great deforestation, emitting greenhouse gases, and polluting the environment, thus creating global warming and environmental concerns. The main task has been to supply energy to the cities and various places of industrialization, thereby creating an energy imbalance within the country's socioeconomic and political landscapes. Comparing the present and ever increasing population with the total capacity of the available power stations reveals that Nigeria is not able to meet the energy needs of the people. The rural dwellers still lack electric power[ 37 ].

The nature of Nigeria's energy crises can be characterized by two key factors. The first concerns the recurrent severe shortages of the petroleum product market of which kerosene and diesel are the most prominent. Nigeria has five domestic refineries owned by the government with a capacity to process 450,000 barrels of oil per day, yet imports constitute more than 75% of petroleum product requirements. The state-owned refineries have hardly operated above a 40% capacity utilization rate for any extended period of time in the past two decades. The gasoline market is much better supplied than kerosene and diesel because of its higher political profile. This factor explains why the government has embarked on large import volumes to remedy domestic shortages of the product. According to the Minister for Energy, the subsidy to support the imports of gasoline alone will be in the range of 700 to 800 billion naira in 2008[ 38 ]. The weaker political pressures exerted by the consumers of kerosene (the poor and low middle class) and diesel (industrial sector) on the government and the constraints on public financing of large-scale imports of these products, as in the case of gasoline, largely explain their more severe and persistent market shortages[ 39 ].

The second dimension of Nigeria's energy crises is exemplified by such indicators as electricity blackouts, brownouts, and pervasive reliance on self-generated electricity. This development has occurred despite abundant energy resources in Nigeria. The electricity market, dominated on the supply side by the state-owned PHCN, formerly called NEPA, has been incapable of providing minimum acceptable international standards of electricity service reliability, accessibility, and availability for the past three decades[ 40 ]. The nature of this poor record in electricity supply is apparent in the trend in transmission and distribution losses shown in Figure 2 . The double-digit transmission and distribution losses are extremely large by international standards and are among the highest in the world. The system losses are five to six times higher than those in well-run power systems. The high level of power losses and the significant illegal access to the public power supply are indicative of the crisis in the industry.

Indicators of the electricity crisis in Nigeria from 1970 to 2004. Adapted from Iwayemi[ 38 ].

Though the peak electricity demand has been less than half of the installed capacity in the past decade, load shedding occurs regularly. Power outages in the manufacturing sector provide another dimension to the crisis. In 2004, the major manufacturing firms experienced 316 outages. This increased by 26% in 2005, followed by an explosive 43% increase between 2006 and 2007. Though no published data exist, the near collapse of the generating system to far below 2,000 MW for prolonged periods of time suggests a reason for the number of outages in 2008 to be very high. This poor service delivery has rendered public supply a standby source as many consumers who cannot afford irregular and poor quality service substitute more expensive captive supply alternatives to minimize the negative consequences of power supply interruptions on their production activities and profitability. An estimated 20% of the investment into industrial projects is allocated to alternative sources of electricity supply[ 3 ].

In summary, the causal factors in Nigeria's energy crisis include the following:

Prevalence of a regime of price control.

Weak concern for cost recovery and lack of adequate economic incentives to induce the state-owned companies (NNPC and PHCN) to engage in efficient production and investment behavior. This seems apparent in the existence of large input and output subsidies.

Multiplicity of economic and noneconomic objectives without proper identification of the trade-offs among these different objectives. This is implicit in its pricing policies in both electricity and petroleum products markets.

Institutional and governance failures which induced gross distortions and inefficiency in production, investment choices and high costs of operation, low return on investment, and expensive delays along with cost overruns in the state energy enterprises.

Energy demand projection

There is an increasing demand for fuel energy due to the increase in economic development and civilization all over the world. Industry is one of the most important energy-consuming sectors in the world. According to Mitchel[ 41 ], energy is essential to our way of life. It provides us with comfort, transportation, and the ability to produce food and material goods. Historically, energy consumption has been directly related to the gross national product, which is a measure of the market value of the total national output of goods and services[ 42 ].

According to Sambo et al.[ 43 ], population is a major driver of energy demand, while its most important determinant is the level of economic activity and its structure measured by the total gross domestic product (GDP) alongside the various sectors and sub-sector s of the economy. Population projection of Nigeria was expected to grow from 115.22 million in 2000 to 281.81 million by 2030 at an average annual rate of 2.86% between 2000 and 2030.

Based on the models developed by the ECN, the country's energy demand was analyzed for the period from 2000 to 2030 with the use of the Model for the Analysis of the Energy Demand (MAED) and the Wien Automatic System Planning (WASP) package (Table 5 ). It can be said that the energy demand of Nigeria will be approximately 2.5-, 3-, 3.5-, and 4.5-fold between the years 2000 and 2015 and approximately 8-, 13-, 17-, and 22.5-fold between the years 2000 and 2030 based on a 7% (reference), 10% (high growth), 11.5% (optimistic), and 13% (optimistic) GDP growth rate per annum, respectively. This increase in the energy demand is due to the high level of economic activities expected in Nigeria as measured by the total GDP.

The trends of the projected energy demand are shown in Figure 3 . In 2005, the total energy demand based on a 10% GDP growth rate revealed that the household segment had the largest share of all the sectors. The sectorial energy demands in the 2030 plan period, however, showed the highest growth rates for the industrial, followed by the services, household, and transport sectors in that order (Table 6 ). The electricity demand (extracted from the total energy demand) shows an increasing trend from the base year 2005 to 2030 in the four adopted growth scenarios, respectively, as shown in Figure 4 , indicating a high economic growth rate leading to a substantial increase in the electricity demand. The energy consumed over the years shows a decreasing trend with an increasing population, necessitating a corresponding increase in the energy output. Hence, the country's large energy efficiency potential needs to be exploited (Table 7 ). In 2007, the total primary energy consumed was 11.4 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) with petroleum products having the largest share of 67.3% of the total consumption, amounting to a total average consumption of 78.7% between 2002 and 2007. This level of consumption was followed by that of hydropower at 23.9%, natural gas at 8.7%, and coal at 0.05% with their respective total average consumption standing at 16.08%, 5.17%, and 0.04% for the period from 2002 to 2007 as shown in Table 8 . Flaring adversely reduced the maximum contribution of natural gas to the total energy consumption mix in spite of its abundance in the country as most of the oil fields lack appropriate infrastructure for gas production. The general Niger Delta security issue (bunkering, sabotage, etc.) have also weakened most of the oil and gas projects[ 45 ].

Graph showing the projected electricity demand between 2000 and 2030.

Graph showing the projected electricity demand between 2005 and 2030.

Throughout the world, electricity is the most widely used and desirable form of energy. It is a basic requirement for economic development, national development, meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and for an adequate standard of living. As a country's population grows and its economy expands, its demand for electrical energy multiplies. If this demand is not met adequately, a shortage in supply occurs. This shortage can assume crisis proportions and possibly affect achieving sustainable energy development.

The electric power capacity demand by projection in Nigeria would be approximately 3.5-fold between 2010 and 2020 and 7.5-fold between 2010 and 2030, respectively, at a growth rate of 7%, while the projected supply by fuel mix shows a similar trend with the demand at both growth rates of 7% and 13% (Table 9 ). There is a wide disparity in the energy demand to the supply ratio in Nigeria both in the present and the future. This necessitates an urgent need for alternative energy sources and efficient energy usage in order to avert looming energy crises.

These projections for continued rapid energy growth imply some severe problems for the future resource depletion, energy degradation, associated environmental problems, fuel shortage, etc. Indeed, many of these problems are already happening; thus, energy conservation is concerned with ways to reduce energy demand, but yet achieve the same objective as before.

To achieve its objective of sustainable development, Nigeria needs to substantially increase the supply of modern affordable energy services to all its citizens while, at the same time, maintaining environmental integrity and social cohesion. In addition, a robust mix of energy sources (fossil and renewable), combined with an improved end-use efficiency, will almost certainly be required to meet the growing demand for energy services in the country. Technological development, decentralized non-grid networks, diversity of energy-supply systems, and affordable energy services are imperative to meeting the future demand.

The role of renewable energy technologies in sustainable development

Renewable energy has an important role to play in meeting the future energy needs in both rural and urban areas[ 50 ]. The development and utilization of renewable energy should be given a high priority, especially in the light of increased awareness of the adverse environmental impacts of fossil-based generation. The need for sustainable energy is rapidly increasing in the world. A widespread use of renewable energy is important for achieving sustainability in the energy sectors in both developing and industrialized countries.

Nigeria is blessed with a large amount of renewable natural resources (Table 1 ), which, when fully developed and utilized, will lead to poverty reduction and sustainable development.

Renewable energy resources and technologies are a key component of sustainable development for the following primary reasons:

They generally cause less environmental impact than other energy sources. The implementation of renewable energy technologies will help to address the environmental concerns that emerged due to greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), oxides of nitrogen (NO x ), oxides of sulfur (SO x ), and particulate matters as a result of power generation from oil, natural gas, and coal. A variety of renewable energy resources provide a flexible array of options for their use.

They cannot be depleted. If used carefully in appropriate applications, renewable energy resources can provide a reliable and sustainable supply of energy almost indefinitely. In contrast, fossil fuel resources are diminished by extraction and consumption.

They favor system decentralization and local solutions that are somewhat independent of the national network, thus enhancing the flexibility of the system and providing economic benefits to small isolated populations.

To seize the opportunities presented by renewable energy resources in sustainable development, Nigeria needs to establish renewable energy markets and gradually develop experience with renewable energy technologies. The barriers and constraints to the diffusion of renewable energy should be overcome. A legal, administrative, and financing infrastructure should be established to facilitate planning and application of renewable energy projects. Government must play a useful role in promoting renewable energy technologies by initiating surveys and studies to establish their potential in both urban and rural areas.

Because renewable energies are constantly being replenished from natural resources, they have security of supply, unlike fossil fuels, which are negotiated on the international market and subject to international competition, sometimes even resulting in wars and shortages. They have important advantages, which could be stated as follows:

Their rate of use does not affect their availability in the future; thus, they are inexhaustible.

The resources are generally well distributed all over the world, even though wide spatial and temporal variations occur. Thus, all regions of the world have reasonable access to one or more forms of renewable energy supply.

They are clean and pollution-free and are therefore a sustainable natural form of energy.

They can be cheaply and continuously harvested and are therefore a sustainable source of energy.

Unlike the nuclear and fossil fuels plants which belong to big companies, governments, or state-owned enterprises, renewable energy can be set up in small units and is therefore suitable for community management and ownership. In this way, the returns from renewable energy projects can be kept in the community. In Nigeria, this has particular relevance since the electricity grid does not extend to remote areas, and it is prohibitively expensive to do so. This presents a unique opportunity to construct power plants closer to where they are actually needed. In this way, much needed income, skill transfer, and manufacturing opportunities for small businesses would be injected into rural communities.

Energy and sustainable development in Nigeria

Sustainable energy involves the provision of energy services in a sustainable manner, which in turn necessitates that energy services be provided for all people in ways that, now and in the future, are sufficient to provide the basic necessities, affordable, not detrimental to the environment, and acceptable to communities and people[ 51 – 53 ]. Linkages between sustainable energy and factors such as efficiency and economic growth have been investigated[ 54 ].

The energy sector plays a pivotal role in attempts to achieve sustainable development, balancing economic and social developments with environmental protection (encapsulated in the ‘strap line’ for the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development of ‘people, planet, and prosperity’). Energy is central to practically all aspects of sustainable development. Energy is central to the economy because it drives all economic activities. This characterization of energy directs our attention to its sources in nature, to activities that convert and reconvert this energy, and finally to activities that use the energy to produce goods and services and household consumption. Traditionally, energy is treated as an intermediate input in the production process. This treatment of energy's role understates its importance and contribution to development. All economic activities and processes require some form of energy. This effectively makes energy a critical primary factor of production. Given the state of technological advancement in the economy, capital and labor perform supporting roles in converting, directing, and amplifying energy to produce goods and services needed for growth and poverty reduction[ 3 ].

Energy services are essential ingredients of all three pillars of sustainable development - economic, social, and environmental. Economies that have replaced human and animal labor with more convenient and efficient sources of energy and technology are also the ones that have grown fastest. No country in modern times has succeeded in substantially reducing poverty without adequately increasing the provision and use of energy to make material progress[ 55 ]. Indeed, by not ensuring a minimum access to energy services for a broad segment of the population, economic development of developing countries such as Nigeria beyond the level of subsistence has proven to be a real challenge.

At the national level, energy propels economic development by serving as the launch pad for industrial growth and, via transport and communications, providing access to international markets and trade. Reliable, efficient, and competitively priced energy supplies also attract foreign investment - a very important factor in boosting economic growth in recent times. At the local level, energy facilitates economic development by improving productivity and enabling local income generation through improved agricultural development (irrigation, crop processing, storage, and transport to market) and through non-farm employment, including micro-enterprise development. As an indicator of local recognition of the importance of energy for businesses, Nigerian manufacturers, who were asked to rank the constraints on their firms' activities, identified power breakdowns, and voltage fluctuations as their top two problems[ 46 ]. Recent developments in Ghana's energy sector support this point[ 56 ].

Energy has also strong and important links to the environment. Many energy sources are drawn directly from the environment, requiring a sound management for these sources to be sustainable. Furthermore, energy use affects the environment. Emissions from fossil fuels, for example, reach beyond the local and national levels to affect the global environment and contribute to climate change. The poorest people often live in the most ecologically sensitive and vulnerable physical locations. These areas may be the most affected by the predictable effects of climate change such as an increased frequency of extreme events, for example floods, drought, rising sea levels, and melting ice caps. The risks facing poor people are often increased by the unsustainable use of biomass resources[ 3 ].

The connection between energy, the environment, and sustainable development is worth highlighting. Energy supply and use are related to climate change as well as such environmental concerns as air pollution, ozone depletion, forest destruction, and emissions of radioactive substances. These issues must be addressed if society is to develop while maintaining a healthy and clean environment. Ideally, a society seeking sustainable development should use only energy resources which have no environmental impact. However, since all energy resources lead to some environmental impact, an improved efficiency and environmental stewardship can help overcome many of the concerns regarding the limitations imposed on sustainable development by environmental emissions and their negative impacts[ 55 ].

Energy is directly linked to the broader concept of sustainability and affects most of civilization. That is particularly evident since energy resources drive much if not most of the world's economic activity, in virtually all economic sectors. Also, energy resources, whether carbon-based or renewable, are obtained from the environment, and wastes from energy processes (production, transport, storage, utilization) are typically released to the environment. Given the intimate ties between energy and the key components of sustainable development, the attainment of energy sustainability is being increasingly recognized as a critical aspect of achieving sustainable development[ 55 ].

Use of renewable natural resources, combined with efficient supply and use of fossil fuels with cleaner technologies, can help reduce the environmental effects of energy use and help Nigeria replacing the existing, inefficient fossil fuel technologies that pollute the environment.

As a complementary measure, careful management of energy resources is important to promote economic growth, protect ecosystems and provide sustainable natural resources.

Thus, energy sustainability is considered to involve the sustainable use of energy in the overall energy system. This system includes processes and technologies for the harvesting of energy sources, their conversion to useful energy forms, to provide energy services such as operating communications systems, lighting buildings, and cooking[ 57 ].

The reform of the energy sector is critical to sustainable development in Nigeria. This includes reviewing and reforming subsidies, establishing credible regulatory frameworks, developing policy environments through regulatory interventions, and creating market-based approaches such as emission trading[ 58 ]. Globally, countries are developing strategies and policies to enable a sustainable development of their energy resources, thus contributing to fuel economic and social developments, while reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

The energy sector is very strategic to the development of the Nigerian economy. In addition to its macroeconomic importance, it has major roles to play in reducing poverty, improving productivity, and enhancing the general quality of life. If Nigeria is to take the path of sustainable energy, it is important to accurately and technically model the energy demand and supply scenarios and their impacts on the economy, resources, and society along with the environment, for both medium and long terms. From such analyses, we can derive information that is vital for policy construction and investment[ 59 ].

Energy efficiency and energy conservation in sustainable development

Energy efficiency means an improvement in practices and products that reduce the energy necessary to provide services. Energy efficiency products essentially help to do more work with less energy[ 60 ]. Energy efficiency is also defined as essentially using less energy to provide the same service[ 55 ]. In this sense, energy efficiency can also be thought of as a supply of resource - often considered an important, cost-effective supply option. Investment into energy efficiency can provide additional economic value by preserving the resource base (especially combined with pollution prevention technologies) and mitigating environmental problems.

Energy efficiency (EE) improvements have multiple advantages, such as the efficient exploitation of natural resources, the reduction in air pollution levels, and lower spending by the consumers on energy-related expenditure. Investments in EE result in long-term benefits, such as reduced energy consumption, local environmental enhancement, and overall economic development. Energy use has environmental impacts, regardless of the source or mechanism. For example, hydroelectric projects affect their local ecological systems and displace long-standing social systems. Fossil fuel power creates pollution in the extraction, transportation, and combustion of its raw materials. The long-term storage of waste products of the nuclear power industry is an issue to be resolved. Cost-effective energy efficiency is the ultimate multiple pollutant reduction strategy[ 61 ].

In Nigeria, a lot of energy is wasted because households, public and private offices, as well as industries use more energy than is actually necessary to fulfill their needs. One of the reasons is that they use outdated and inefficient equipment and production processes. Unwholesome practices also lead to energy wastage.

In Nigeria, the need for energy is exceeding its supply. In view of these circumstances, primary energy conservation, rationalization, and efficient use are immediate needs. Getting all the possible energy from the fuel into the working fluid is the goal of efficient equipment operations. This leads to a higher productivity and saves not only money, but also influences the safety and life of the equipment and reduces pollution[ 62 ]. Steps taken to minimize energy consumption, or to use the energy more effectively, are steps in the right direction to preserve the global environment. Energy conservation measures or recommendations are often referred to more positively as opportunities. Two primary criteria for applying energy conservation are that it is easy to implement and that its payback is brief. Ease of implementation and duration of payback period have been used to classify Energy conservation opportunities into three general categories for use: in maintenance and operation measures, in process improvement projects, and in large capital projects[ 61 ].

Energy conservation and energy efficiency are separate but related concepts. Energy efficiency is achieved when energy intensity in a specific product, process, or area of production or consumption is reduced without affecting output, consumption, or comfort levels. Promotion of energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation and is therefore an integral part of energy conservation promotional policies[ 63 ].

Energy efficiency encompasses conserving a scarce resource; improving the technical efficiency of energy conversion, generation, transmission and end-use devices; substituting more expensive fuels with cheaper ones; and reducing or reversing the negative impact of energy production and consumption activities on the environment. Energy conservation is a tangible resource by itself that competes economically with contemporary energy supply options. In addition to this, it offers a practical means of achieving four goals that should be of high priority in any nation that desires quick and sustainable economic growth and development. These are economic competitiveness, utilization of scarce capital for development, environmental quality, and energy security. It enhances the international competitiveness of the industries in the world markets by reducing the cost of production. It optimizes the use of capital resources by directing lesser amounts of money in conservation investment as compared with capital-intensive energy supply options. It protects the environment in the short run by reducing pollution and in the long run by reducing the scope of global climate change. It strengthens the security of supply through a lesser demand and a lesser dependence on petroleum product imports. No energy supply option may be able to provide all these benefits. Energy conservation is a decentralized issue and is largely dependent on individual, distinct decisions of energy supply, which are highly centralized. The housewife, the car driver, the housing developer, the house owner, the boiler operator in industry, and every other individual who consumes energy in some form or another are required to participate in energy-saving measures. It calls for a collective endeavor and is dependent upon the actions of people in diverse fields although the people involved may not be sufficiently informed or motivated to conserve energy[ 64 ].

Renewable energy and energy efficiency as climate change mitigation strategies

The Inter-government Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a body set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme to provide authoritative information about the climate change phenomenon, asserts that the warming of the last 100 years was unusual and unlikely to be natural in origin[ 58 ]. The IPCC has attributed the warming of at least the second half of the century to an increase in the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Human activity is largely responsible for the emission of these gases into the atmosphere: CO 2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels (coals, oil, gas) as well as by land-use activities such as deforestation; methane is produced by cattle, rice agriculture, fossil fuel use, and landfills; and nitrous oxide is produced by the chemical industry, cattle feed lots, and agricultural soils. As humans have increased their levels of production and consumption, greenhouse gas emissions have also increased; since 1750, at the time of the industrial revolution, CO 2 emission has increased by 31%, methane by 15%, and nitrous oxide by 17%. Moreover, the emissions of these gases continue to rise steadily[ 65 ].

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) was integrated to the Kyoto Protocol as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change[ 66 ]. CDM projects allow investment by entities from industrialized countries into projects in developing countries. In return for this investment, carbon credits (in this case, certified emission reductions) are received by the investor in the industrialized country. This enables the industrialized country to meet its emission reduction targets given by the Kyoto Protocol more cost-effectively, while promoting sustainable development in developing countries. CDM projects may also be unilateral, i.e., they take place in the developing country without a project partner from an industrialized nation.

Investment into clean energy facilities is recognized as the best way to increase the participation of Nigerian proponents in the CDM process and hence the global carbon market. Clean energy investment is defined as follows: investment into an energy supply and utilization system that provides the required energy with minimal negative environmental and social consequences [ 67 ]. Investment into clean energy systems can also be viewed as an investment into energy sources and technologies that are significantly less environmentally damaging than in the status quo case. Investment into clean energy systems provides the most effective and optimally efficient path to an increased CDM participation in Nigeria and hence an effective participation in the global carbon market.

The salient characteristics of clean energy investment are as follows:

The resulting system results in little or no emissions of obnoxious gases and particulates ;

The clean energy technologies have a carbon footprint that is much lower than the baseline emission scenario ;

The technology is accessible, and the required investment is available for adoption in developing countries like Nigeria ;

The implementation of the clean energy technology will contribute to sustainability.

Energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies are prominent in most sustainable development programs, for example, the Agenda 21[ 68 ]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the second assessment report, the stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at levels that will prevent serious interference with the climate system can only be achieved by dramatically increasing the implementation of renewable energy. In one IPCC scenario, in which greenhouse gases are stabilized by the year 2050, the share of renewable energy in the global energy balance must increase tenfold from the current level. In developing countries, the required increase is even more dramatic, estimated at 20-fold between 1990 and 2050. Further improvements in energy efficiency and energy conservation can reduce emissions in the shorter term, thus ‘buying time’ for the required changes in energy production[ 69 ].

Nigeria is one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases in Africa. The practice of flaring gas by the oil companies operating in Nigeria has been a major means through which greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide emissions in this area are among the highest in the world[ 70 ]. Some 45.8 billion kW of heat are discharged into the atmosphere of the Niger Delta from flaring 1.8 billion ft 3 of gas every day[ 58 ]. Gas flaring has raised temperatures and rendered large areas uninhabitable. Between 1970 and 1986, a total of about 125.5 million m 3 of gas was produced in the Niger Delta region, about 102.3 (81.7 %) million m 3 were flared, while only 2.6 million m 3 were used as fuel by oil-producing companies and about 14.6 million m 3 were sold to other consumers[ 71 , 72 ]. The use of renewable energy sources will reduce the over dependence on the burning of fossil fuel. Moreover, instead of flaring gas in Nigeria, the gases can be converted to methanol and used as a fuel for both domestic and industrial use. With good energy efficiency practices and products, the burning of fossil fuel for energy will be greatly minimized.

Conclusions

From the energy outlook of Nigeria, it is very clear that the energy demand is very high and is increasing geometrically while the supply remains inadequate, insecure, and irregular and is decreasing with time; the mix has hitherto been dominated by fossil resources which are fast being depleted apart from being environmentally non-friendly. The energy supply mix must thus be diversified through installing an appropriate infrastructure and creating full awareness to promote and develop the abundant renewable energy resources present in the country as well as to enhance the security of supply.

There is clear evidence that Nigeria is blessed with abundant resources of fossil fuels as well as renewable energy resources. The major challenge is an inefficient usage of energy in the country. As a result, there is an urgent need to encourage the evolvement of an energy mix that will emphasize the conservation of petroleum resources in such a manner enabling their continued exportation for foreign earnings for as many years as possible.

The opportunities for conserving energy in our various sectors - office building and residential areas, manufacturing industries, transportation, electricity generation and distribution, and electricity equipment and appliances - were presented in this work. The various areas where savings in energy can be made have also been identified. Several guidelines and measures have been suggested to conserve energy in these areas, and if the guidelines and measures are strictly adhered to, then substantive savings in energy will be carried out.

In this study, four economic growth scenarios were dealt with in the review of the energy requirements. These are the reference scenarios of a 7% total GDP growth rate that will ensure the MDGs of reducing poverty by 50% of the 2,000 value by 2015. The high growth scenario of a 10% GDP growth rate in the attempt to eradicate poverty by 2030 and the optimistic scenarios of 11.5% and 13% GDP growth rates that will further increase the rate of economic development.

In order to ensure the sustainability of energy supply and subsequently the sustainable economic development of the country, the government has to intensify the further implementation of renewable energy and energy efficiency programs. As observed in quite a number of successful countries promoting renewable energy, such as Germany, Denmark, and Japan, a strong and long-term commitment from the government is crucial in implementing any kind of policies which will lead to the development of renewable energies, in particular, and a sustainable development, in general.

Recommendations

In this study, it is established that renewable energy and energy efficiency are two components that should go together to achieve sustainable development in Nigeria. The need to conserve the present energy generated in the country using energy-efficient products and the appropriate practices is essential for sustainable development. Therefore, it is recommended that the country should do the following:

Develop policies on energy efficiency and integrate them into the current energy policies. A comprehensive and coherent energy policy is essential in guiding the citizens towards an efficient usage of its energy resources.

Promote energy-efficient products and appropriate practices at the side of the end users and energy generation.

Create awareness on renewable energy and energy efficiency.

Establish an agency to promote the use of energy-efficient products and ensure the appropriate practices.

Develop and imbibe energy efficiency technologies.

Carry out a resource survey and assessment to determine the total renewable energy potential in the country as well as identify the local conditions and local priorities in various ecological zones.

Establish a testing and standards laboratory for renewable energy technologies similar to that in South Africa.

Take advantage of global partnerships, such as the Residential Energy Efficiency Project initiative of UK, to assist the country in a creative integration of renewable energy systems.

Establish a renewable energy funding/financing agency such as India's Indian Renewable Energy Agency.

Develop appropriate drivers for the implementation of energy efficiency policies.

Clean energy facilities should be embraced in the different sectors of the Nigerian economy.

In the following, a partial list of potential clean energy opportunities in Nigeria is presented:

More efficient passive and full usage of solar technologies in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors.

Biogas from wastes as a source of cooking fuel in homes.

Use of energy-efficient lighting.

Implementation of renewable biomass as a fuel in highly efficient cook stoves.

Efficient production of charcoal as a fuel in homes and small and medium enterprises .

Use of biofuels in efficient cooking stoves and lamps in homes.

Energy-efficient lighting.

Use of compressed natural gas (CNG) as a transport fuel.

Use of biofuels as a transport fuel.

Introduction of a bus rapid transit system to other cities and expansion of the Lagos system.

Shift from high carbon intensive fuels to natural gas for energy generation in industries.

Development of a CNG infrastructure to distribute natural gas to industries located at sites remote from the existing pipelines.

Implementation of combined heat and power (CHP) facilities in industries.

Implementation of energy efficiency improvements in manufacturing industries.

Implementation of CHP facilities in commercial facilities.

Use of solar and wind energy for irrigation water pumping and farm electricity supply.

Utilization of agricultural residues for electricity generation.

Generation of biogas from wastes produced by the livestock and animal husbandry.

In addition to these, the existing research and development centers and technology development institutions should be adequately strengthened to support the shift towards an increased use of renewable energy. Human resource development, critical knowledge, and know-how transfer should be the focus for project development, project management, monitoring, and evaluation. The preparation of standards and codes of practices, maintenance manuals, life cycle costing, and cost-benefit analysis tools should be undertaken on urgent priority.

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Oyedepo, S.O. Energy and sustainable development in Nigeria: the way forward. Energ Sustain Soc 2 , 15 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/2192-0567-2-15

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Investigation of the Geochemical Evolution of Groundwater Using Major Ions and Stable Isotopes Signatures: A Case Study in Transboundary Aquifers

• Research Article-Earth Sciences
• Published: 25 September 2024

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• Olufemi V. Omonona   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6039-5468 1 ,
• Olayemi K. Ajibero 2 &
• Celestine O. Okogbue 3  

Groundwater remains the predominant source of water supply in the Gboko area, a transboundary district of the Benue Valley, Nigeria. Studying the chemical characteristics and the mechanisms controlling the origin of groundwater are important for the sustainability of groundwater resources. This study aims to decipher the water chemical properties and the evolution of groundwater in the Gboko area, central Nigeria. A total of 50 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for physicochemical parameters and \(\delta\) 2 H and \(\delta\) 18 O. Hydrochemical results revealed that the groundwater pH varied between 4.71 and 8.15, indicating that the groundwater of the area is acidic to alkaline in nature. The concentrations of the anions are in a decreasing order of \({HCO}_{3}^{-}\) > \({CO}_{3}^{2-}\) > \({NO}_{3}^{-}\) > \({Cl}^{-}\) > \({SO}_{4}^{2-}\) > \({F}^{-}\)  >  \({NO}_{2}^{-}\) , while the abundance of the cations follow a decreasing magnitude of \({Ca}^{2+}\) > \({Na}^{+}\) > \({Mg}^{2+}\)  >  \({K}^{+}\) . Saturation indices and stable isotopes were used to interpret the chemical data. The results show the dominance of rock-water interactions and precipitation processes. Specific rock-water interaction processes include halite and calcite dissolution, basic cation exchange, and silicate weathering. Furthermore, the stable isotope data revealed that the groundwater was recharged from very recent precipitation, but with its chemical properties altered by rock-water interaction processes in a cold atmosphere. The findings of this research will provide tools that will be necessary for planning and managing the water resources of the area.

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Olufemi V. Omonona

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Olayemi K. Ajibero

Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

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Conceptualization: Olufemi V. Omonona. Data curation: Olufemi V. Omonona and Olayemi K. Ajibero. Investigation: Olufemi V. Omonona. Methodology: Olufemi V. Omonona and Olayemi K. Ajibero. Supervision: Celestine O. Okogbue. Writing-original draft: Olufemi V. Omonona. Writing-review and editing Olufemi V. Omonona.

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Omonona, O.V., Ajibero, O.K. & Okogbue, C.O. Investigation of the Geochemical Evolution of Groundwater Using Major Ions and Stable Isotopes Signatures: A Case Study in Transboundary Aquifers. Arab J Sci Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-024-09534-0

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Published : 25 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-024-09534-0

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