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British vs. American Spelling – Finding a Consistent Scholarly Voice in PhD Theses

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Oct 26, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

Chapter 5: Finding Your Scholarly Voice in Correct and Consistent Written English  

Most students who have advanced to the level of doctoral research will have a good idea of what scholarly prose should be – you may already, for instance, have published articles in reputable scholarly journals before beginning your doctoral research. However, a doctoral thesis places new demands on an author: the thesis is, for one, almost certainly the longest piece of writing you have ever attempted, so you will need to sustain an argument over several chapters and bring it to an appropriate conclusion. This involves introducing many factual details and threads of thought and tying them together in a variety of intellectually productive ways, and it also requires deep, logical and creative thinking. It will necessitate variations in your writing style to avoid prose that is repetitious and potentially dull to readers, but must nonetheless remain professional, clear and correct as well as maintaining consistency across numerous details. Whether English is your first language and you consider yourself an aficionado of formal writing or not, this chapter will prove helpful by providing you with advice on a number of matters that academic and scientific writers of English prose tend to find particularly challenging. It relies upon the best style guides and the general expectations associated with academic and scientific writing at the doctoral level and beyond. For further assistance with various aspects of scholarly writing, the open-access Purdue Online Writing Lab (1995–2015) may prove particularly helpful.

Depending on your English language skills and your confidence in them, you may want to use the information in this chapter as a guide to correct style while you write up your thesis or you may wish to consult it only after your thesis is drafted to ensure that you have not incorporated incorrect, inconsistent or otherwise problematic elements in your writing. Whatever the case may be, this and the following three chapters should be used in conjunction with the first part of this book on the requirements and progressive writing of a thesis, with the principles outlined here applied to the writing-up process as necessary. These chapters [1] are not intended to replace any university or department guidelines you are required to observe or any style guides recommended by those guidelines and/or your thesis committee, but they may well provide details and present options for resolving problematic matters not covered by such guidance. Accuracy is certainly the central key to much of what I have to say in these chapters, but if anything could be called an appropriate mantra to keep in mind as you write, it is ‘consistency, consistency, consistency.’

[1] Please note that some information and examples in Parts II and III of this book on writing formal scholarly English, formatting and presenting academic and scientific prose in appropriate ways, producing consistent and complete bibliographical references and using effective techniques for integrating direct quotations have been borrowed and adapted from Olson 2014a and especially Olson 2014b.

5.1 British versus American Spelling

There are two main forms of formal English: British and American. A thesis written in English should use one of these forms consistently, and university or department guidelines (or the style guides they recommend) may indicate which form of English is most acceptable. However, many doctoral candidates whose first language is not English and even some whose first language is may not be aware of the nature and extent of the variations between the two forms. Setting the default language to either British or American in a word-processing program such as Word can be helpful for catching and correcting many words, but this is far from foolproof. Most good English dictionaries will note spelling variations, but some dictionaries do not indicate in all cases whether the spelling variants provided are determined by the differences between British and American English. I therefore present the following list (based primarily on Butcher et al., 2006, and Ritter, 2005) as a guide to the most common variants.

The list above is by no means exhaustive or conclusive and, as its examples demonstrate, there can be considerable overlap in usage, with each form of English using the spellings more common to the other at times. However, if this list is consulted in conjunction with a good British or American dictionary that notes the variants common in the other form of English, most uncertainties can be resolved. If you find that certain words you need to use in your thesis prove especially problematic simply because it is impossible to decide which spelling is British and which is American even after consulting dictionaries and whatever additional online help might be available, there is a good chance that the spelling variants are not specifically linked to either form of English and so can be used in both. In such cases, the goal is to adopt and use one form of each word consistently throughout the thesis. Beyond the spelling variants listed above, there are a number of usages that vary between British and American English. Examples include ‘different from’ versus ‘different than,’ ‘got’ versus ‘gotten,’ ‘hire’ versus ‘rent,’ ‘petrol’ versus ‘gas(oline),’ ‘mobile’ versus ‘cell (phone),’ ‘first-year student’ versus ‘freshman’ and ‘aeroplane’ versus ‘airplane’ (with the British form first in each case). For some of these terms, an additional concern is whether or not the intended audience will understand them. Most academic and scientific work is written in the twenty-first century with at least the possibility of international readers in mind, so it can be helpful to use a term that will be universally understood (‘mobile phone,’ for instance, instead of ‘mobile’ or ‘cell’) or to provide a brief explanation on first use (that ‘petrol’ in Britain, for example, is the fuel known as ‘gas’ or ‘gasoline’ in the United States).

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

Interested in Proofreading your PhD Thesis? Get in Touch with us

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Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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PhD Success – How To Write a Doctoral Thesis

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• British English words that end in -re (e.g. centre, fibre, theatre) often end in -er in American English (center, fiber, theater).
• British English words that end in -our (e.g. colour, humour) usually end with -or in American English (color, humor).
• Verbs in British English that can be spelled with either -ize or -ise at the end (e.g. recognize/recognise) are always spelled with -ize in American English.
• Verbs in British English that end in -yse (e.g. analyse) are always spelled -yze in American English (analyze).
• In British spelling, verbs ending in a vowel plus l double the l when adding endings that begin with a vowel (e.g. travel, travelled, traveller). In American English the l is not doubled (travel, traveled, traveler).
• British English words that are spelled with the double vowels ae or oe (e.g. archaeology, manoeuvre) are just spelled with an e in American English (archeology, maneuver).
• Some nouns that end with -ence in British English (e.g. licence, defence) are spelled -ense in American English (license, defense).
• Some nouns that end with -ogue in British English (e.g. dialogue) end with -og in American English (dialog).

American English vs. British English in Research Manuscripts: A Free Guide

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This free guide provides an overview of the most common spelling differences in research papers when choosing American English or British English.

Updated on December 4, 2012

In a simpler world, English would be written the same way everywhere. However, when Noah Webster set out to create an American English dictionary in the early 1800s, he did more than just add new words to British English: he also revised the spelling of many common words to eliminate what he saw as unnecessary letters. His new spellings were adopted in the US but not the UK, and these spelling differences remain to this day.

The list below is intended to provide an overview of the most common spelling differences between British and American English. The words beginning each list are intended to establish overall patterns, whereas the words in italics towards the end of the lists are examples of deviations from the rule. Remember that you can choose between “English (U.S.)” and “English (U.K.)” in Microsoft Word when setting the language for your document. This change allows the spell check to help catch these differences in spelling.

Click here to download a list of American English and British English spelling differences for future reference.

-ize (-yze)/-ise

American/british.

characterize/characterise

prioritize/prioritise

specialize/specialise

analyze/analyse

catalyze/catalyse

size /s ize

exercise / exercise

The products of the catalyzed reaction were characterized using specialized equipment/The products of the catalysed reaction were characterised using specialised equipment.

behavior/behaviour

color/colour

favor/favour

contour / contour

Because of its decolorization behavior , this material is favored /Because of its decolourisation behaviour , this material is favoured .

center/centre

fiber/fibre

liter/litre

parameter / parameter

Five milliliters of the mixture containing the fibers was pipetted on the center of the slide/Five millilitres of the mixture containing the fibres was pipetted on the centre of the slide.

e/(ae or oe)

ameba/amoeba

anesthesia/anaesthesia

diarrhea/diarrhoea

leukemia/leukaemia

cesium/caesium

The patient with leukemia was given anesthesia before the procedure/The patient with leukaemia was given anaesthesia before the procedure.

defense/defence

practice (noun and verb)/ practice (noun) /practise (verb)

license (noun and verb)/licence (noun)/ license (verb)

defensive / defensive

advice (noun) and advise (verb) / advice (noun) and advise (verb)

The defense attorney had practiced law for over thirty years/The defence attorney had practised law for over thirty years.

-/e, -og/-ogue

aging/ageing

acknowledgment/acknowledgement

judgment/judgement

analog/analogue

dialog/dialogue

dying/dyeing (from die/dye) / dying/dyeing (from die/dye)

The aging analog -to-digital converter is slowly dying/The ageing analogue -to-digital converter is slowly dying.

-l/-ll OR -ll/-l

fulfill/fulfil

enroll/enrol

skill , skillful/ skill , skilful

labeled/labelled

signaling/signalling

propelled / propelled

revealing / revealing

The skillful student noted that the drop in enrollment may be signaling a problem with the study design. The skilful student noted that the drop in enrolment may be signalling a problem with the study design.

This list of differences between American English and British English is by no means exhaustive, but we hope that it helps give you an idea of the distinctions between the two styles of writing. For guaranteed correct word usage, trust one of our editors to edit your manuscript . If you have questions about any particular word, please contact us .

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How to approach American English vs. British English spelling in a paper?

I am currently writing a paper, for which my title and core problem is spelled differently in American and British English.

I don't worry about my professor preferring one way of writing over the other, as I'm not residing in an English-speaking country, but:

After all, my paper is being written in English, even it won't be published. Thus I wonder:

Is there a "standard procedure" for such cases, at least in US Ivy League universities or in certain citation styles? (I am currently using APA, 6th (our prof. didn't prescribe any specific citation style) as it suits my personal preference of how a reference should be cited and displayed.)

I will definitely mention both words in the "keywords" area, but other than that I will go with one spelling, namely the American English one. The word is "harmonization", if that should be important.

Sorry for my lack of initial research, I found this SE question though.

• 44 Advice I was given on this is to use American spelling when in doubt. Because if you use American spelling, Brits will say "They are using American spelling". If you use British spelling Americans will say "Who is this moron who can't spell 'center'?". –  DJClayworth Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 15:57
• It might help to be more precise about your question. Is it "Should I use the American or British spelling for harmonization in the title of my paper that won't be published?" –  Fuhrmanator Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:17
• @Neal I don't know who misspelled British, wasn't me. ;) Happy to see that this question found some interest / upvotes. DJClayworth: That makes sense. Fuhrmanator: I sure agree with you! But I am really interested in the general conflict (what happens next time otherwise?) and more so I think the SE community is. My specific case is really not that interesting, it is just a starting point IMHO. –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:22
• I have to add: Unfortunately the OECD as well as the original publication(s) on which most of my research is based use the British spelling: dl.dropbox.com/u/16751/harmonisation.jpg Considering this, would this influence your stance? –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 10:15

8 Answers 8

Whatever style guide your use, citations should be cited exactly in the original spelling . Doing otherwise would defeat the whole purpose of citation: uniquely identifying an existing publication.

I could find no direct quote from APA to justify this (except that, well, they don't indicate that you have the liberty to edit the title of cited works!). However, multiple secondary sources make it clear, as for example :

Notes: Please "copy" the title of a book/an article/whatever (as far as the spelling of words such as "behavior"/"behavioral" are concerned) […] exactly as in the original .

Citation style guides tend to be more explicit for foreign language works, where most of them explicitly state (in some wording or another):

Give the original title, and, in brackets, the English translation

• 6 The question seems to be about which spelling the OP should use for their own title, and how to handle the fact that searches for on may not find the other, not in which spelling to use in their own references. –  user568 Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 15:10
• 3 The question in bold is: “Is there a standard procedure for such cases […] in certain citation styles?”… but I agree it's not entirely clear what is asked. –  F'x Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 15:13
• F'x it is true, I actually didn't think about the implication of "citation" vs.(!) "citation style". But after my recent look into the Chicago and other style, those "big players" meanwhile offer a whole "styling guideline" for the rest of the academic paper, unless I misunderstand and e.g. the "Purdue OWL" content is entirely "made up" and not founded on APA guidelines (cf.: owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01 ). –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:26
• 5 This doesn't answer the question. –  DJClayworth Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:27
• 1 @grunwald2.0 you're asking someone to prove a negative :) The title is the title, and when you're quoting someone, you're not supposed to edit what you quote, period. (Or you mark it as such, and there are rules.) I've edited my answer to add what little relevant information I could find. –  F'x Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 10:12

I typically don't worry about this question as a writer . For what it's worth, I'm based in the United States, so I default to American English. I always spell check my papers, but in the more than 25 papers that I've submitted, I've never gotten any feedback about using American spelling rather than British spelling; this question is very relevant for me since many of my papers are on graph colo(u)ring . It may be useful to note that in the journals that I submit to and read, I've seen both American and British spelling. (I think many editors typically let the authors choose which they prefer.)

So my suggestion is this: choose either American or British spelling and stay consistent throughout your paper. Don't lose any sleep over this. It will not be the deciding factor in whether your paper is accepted .

However , for doing a literature review, I feel your pain...

• 1 Would you recommend adding keywords in the other language, or really stick to one or the other ? –  Etienne Racine Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 20:49
• 2 I would recommend sticking with one spelling per keyword. For human readers, there will be no confusion. For me, listing both alternatives would be a bit of an eyesore. Hopefully, if this becomes a significant issue, we'll see search engines that automatically check for spelling variants... (but I'm not holding my breath). –  Dan C Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 21:27
• 1 I would recommend using a single consistent spelling standard for the entire paper (except the bibliography, where you should always cite verbatim). American titles and British keywords in the same paper would likely raise eyebrows. –  JeffE Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 3:25
• Dear JeffE, interesting point of view! Why would they raise eyebrows? Keywords are certainly intended to help find and classify a document, or aren't they? Then again, this would be the ONLY exception from the rule (aside from my reference section) that I would make too. –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 6:39
• I strongly agree with "Don't lose any sleep over this." The people who write search engines do know about the issue. I just typed a search with the English word "colour" in the US version of Google, and the results included hits for the American word "color". –  Patricia Shanahan Commented Sep 6, 2017 at 14:33

If your question were about the -our/-or distinction, or the -re/-er distinction, it would be a real question, but with -ise/-ize there's no contest: go with the Z form, as it's accepted on both sides of the Atlantic .

The International Organization for Standardization favours British spellings, and uses the -ize form. (This is known as Oxford Spelling .)

• 1 Dear TRiG, thanks for sharing your extensive knowledge from the English SE and about Oxford Spelling (Wikipedia) . –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 22, 2012 at 5:08

For references, F'x is correct: citations should be given in the spelling used in the original publication.

Beyond that, however, when writing the main text of your article for submission to a journal (or for any other work submitted to a professional publisher), you should follow the style guidelines they set out. Pretty much every journal should have a statement about which set of spellings they prefer (usually based on its country of origin).

For instance, the textbook I am using to teach a course this semester is written by Americans but published by Oxford, a UK publishing company. The word "center" is spelled "centre," and so on.

• "Pretty much every journal should have a statement about which set of spellings they prefer" - this! But: "you should follow the style guidelines they set out" - that was basically my question: Do they? Are the specific examples, i.e. who can (if legal) point me to the section of a style-guide or an author guide of a major publisher, where this is specified? Because your example "they spelled it BE" is not an explicit rule set for authors, we just witness a matter of fact. Further, most papers won't end up in a (text)book, so I dare to say we're really just talking about the academia "niche". –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:29
• As an example, Taylor and Francis journals specify either UK or US spellings as preferred in their author instructions. ACS and AIP journals regularly prefer US spellings (ACS's style guide is published as a book). –  aeismail Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 14:25

I think this is really a non-issue. Any decent search engine will return hits for your paper, even if one searches for harmonisation (the spelling more common in Britain) rather than harmonization (the spelling used in the USA, and also valid, though less common, in Britain) as long as a literal search isn't used.

Example search .

I'm amending my answer to address the part of your question about whether specific journals require certain spellings. A Google search limited to the .edu domains finds lots of author guidelines that address this issue to various degrees, but nothing shows me that there's a single way to go.

• Thanks, good point, I noticed that meanwhile too. That was only part of my question though. And I think we will have to check on other search engines then just Google Scholar to verify that this is indeed the case. –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 19, 2012 at 16:30
• England is in Britain, in case you hadn't noticed. –  TRiG Commented Oct 22, 2012 at 1:14
• I should have said "American spelling" rather than "English spelling" in my first posting. Thanks for the sarcasm and the edit. –  Fuhrmanator Commented Oct 22, 2012 at 2:24

One key factor would be who you main audience will be.

If I was writing an article to be released in Spain i would not write it in French.

If you are writing for mainly Americans then use American English, and the same goes for if it will mainly be for British then go for English.

If this is for all people who speak English then the correct one to use would be British English (which is known as just English, not British English), this is due to the fact that American English is simply at the most basic level a dialect of British English.

Also English comes from England not "Britain".

• 3 I am neither writing for Britons nor Americans. (As) English is a WORLD language, I hoped (and frankly expect) that there would be a track of thoughts that extends beyond just the USA and UK! (And other major native English-speaking countries such as Australia, Canada, South-Africa etc.). –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 6:35
• I think you don't see those additional tracks of development because the spread of English to most other countries has been relatively recent, and therefore the trend was to default to whichever variant was the one first introduced (BE versus AE; BE is naturally more prevalent, given the extent of the British Commonwealth). There hasn't been really enough time linguistically for an entirely new set of usage patterns to arise. –  aeismail Commented Oct 22, 2012 at 12:14

If the intent of the writer is clear and the content is clear, who cares? As long as the message is clear, the writer has performed his duty. I know this is a short putt, but, bottom line, communication rules. If you can't be understood, why bother to try to be understood?

• 3 What about consistency throughout? e.g. 'optimisation', and 'optimization' -- If there are 5 occurrences of this word (3 of one, 2 of another one), then would not reader be unhappy about it. –  Coder Commented Sep 6, 2017 at 10:25

The best thing is to pick and choose the sensible spellings from both dialects. I'm Canadian, but I refuse to write neighbour , a synthetic spelling which has a superfluous letter. On the other hand, the American spelling center (rather than centre ) holds no advantage of brevity, and betrays only ignorance of the Latin root centrum in which tr aren't separated.

Regarding -sation endings versus -zation , these are a favored in a handful of languages like French, Dutch, German. However, not in others like Italian, Spanish, Romanian, Croatian, or Czech.

-sation is bad etymology. For instance the Online Etymology Dictionary gives us this for the word organization :

mid-15c., "act of organizing," from M.Fr. organisation and directly from M.L. organizationem (nom. organizatio), noun of action from pp. stem of organizare, from L. organum "instrument, organ" (see organ). Meaning "system, establishment" is from 1873. Organization man is from title of 1956 book by American sociologist William H. Whyte (1917-1999). Related: Organizational.

As you can see, the original Latin has a z . Since we don't gain any brevity, again, we should go with the spelling which respects etymology. In this case, it is the American one.

Forget borders: respect etymology and favor brevity, but do stop short of writing night and light as nite and lite .

I would hang a footnote on the occurrence of a word with a contentious spelling, explaining my position on spelling and that is that. Academics do not have to be tied to other people's conventions based on national borders.

• 3 English is not logical. Following logical (as opposed to nationally consistent) spelling rules will only frustrate the reader. –  JeffE Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 3:28
• Interesting part on "-sation is bad etymology.", yet my conclusion from this is to go with American English, as that was the question. I can't just create a new standard of English when publishing, I'm no linguist or language researcher. –  grunwald2.0 Commented Oct 20, 2012 at 6:38
• We are not discussing journals here, but there are journals that require consistency of spelling, so this "best of both worlds" approach does not work much in practice. Actually, some journals also specify which of American and British spelling to use. –  Andrés E. Caicedo Commented Sep 6, 2017 at 11:43
• Unless your paper is on etymology, nobody wants to see it cluttered with footnotes about spelling. –  David Richerby Commented Aug 15, 2018 at 22:57

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How to choose between British and American English for technical documents

I'm not a native English speaker. I'm Italian and I'm doing my thesis work in the Netherlands. I have to write technical documents for non-native English speakers, so I didn't receive any advice for choosing which language (British or American) to use, as long as I stay consistent.

My concern comes from the fact that, while British is the "original" form (plus I'm in Europe), American is more related to my field of interest (electronics) and, I would say, more related to the diffusion of English as international language.

Is there any reason because I should use one over the other?

My audience is not well specified because the document is meant to be archived, but most likely European people, not necessarily Dutch.

• american-english
• british-english

• 18 I just want to interject that British is not "the original form". This is like saying that today's fish are our ancestors. Both American and British English have been deviating from their common ancestor — in different directions but by the same degree. And in many respects, contemporary American English is much closer to the original than contemporary British English. –  RegDwigнt Commented May 30, 2012 at 8:46
• 2 @RegDwightΒВBẞ8 please, now you're confusing me :) –  clabacchio Commented May 30, 2012 at 8:47
• 1 Related: Which English language variety is best to use for global e-commerce? ◊ Spelling protocol (American/British/Canadian) for an international conference –  RegDwigнt Commented May 30, 2012 at 8:50
• 4 @clabacchio: Have you tried asking whoever will be reviewing your thesis which variant they would prefer? –  user11752 Commented May 30, 2012 at 14:00
• 3 My experience is that Dutch (and other continental European) people writing English tend to use British spelling --- After all, it's easier to get first-hand experience in English by travelling a few tens of miles across the Channel than across the Atlantic. But this may be generational, the barrier to transcontinental travel is lower today than it was 50 or even 20 years ago and the Internet is also spreading American spelling more widely, so that new English learners around the world have readier access to American sources. –  The Photon Commented Aug 6, 2012 at 5:20

10 Answers 10

Actually I'm a writer. The difference is enormous. You probably cannot write a single sentence that would please a rigorous editor in the U.S. and a similarly qualified person in the U.K.!

It is not just a question of spelling a few words. The differences are so pervasive that I personally as a professional U.S. writer would be incapable of writing text which would not be massively re-written if I submitted it to a British editor.

So yes, you have to choose. Questions to consider, in order of importance.

Which are you most comfortable in already? Your text above read nicely to me, so I suspect perhaps you are most comfortable in American English.

Which English does your editor speak? If you write your text in perfect American English and your editor has learned British English, it's going to be a long, hard edit.

Which type of English are your source materials written in? It's going to be a lot easier to write American English if all the texts you are drawing from are in American English. And of course the reverse is true!

I suggest relying on these factors since it's impossible to know whether your audience prefers British or American English. Britain is closer geographically for Europeans, and BE is the language often used in airports, hotels and train stations. However, many Europeans have spent time in the U.S., or at least watch American movies. In the scientific realm, there are more publications written in American English so scientists may have more exposure to it.

• 4 For fiction, there may indeed be an enormous difference between American and British English. But for scientific writing, there is relatively little difference; each form is almost perfectly comprehensible to speakers of the other. –  Peter Shor Commented Nov 8, 2014 at 14:34
• This is complete bosh. (Sorry to be harsh.) For a thesis, especially a technical one, the main difference is spelling. Almost all the formal-type and -level written sentences are the same. And I doubt lift versus elevator would be an issue. The truth is these types of theses are written by non-native speakers for non-native speakers in eurospeak English, and it can get rather horrible very fast. Often, the target reader doesn't even know there are mistakes in the text...all these upvotes denote lack of culture. That's a fact. –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 15:07
• If I write a document in American English, and the editor has learned British English, then unless the publication requires British English, my document stays unchanged, and if the editor cannot handle it then he isn't qualified. Same the other way round obviously. –  gnasher729 Commented Jul 1, 2018 at 23:12

The differences between British English and American English are more apparent in speech than in writing, where the main indicator of variance is spelling. You have to consider who your readers are, and adapt your writing to their expectations. Do you have any particular example that is bothering you?

• An example: behaviour vs behavior . It's particularly annoying because Word's spellchecker forces one or the other. –  clabacchio Commented May 30, 2012 at 8:15
• 13 I think the best answer to this question may be the one the O.P. gave: just stay consistent. The first time I see "behaviour" in a document, I just assume it's written in British English. At that point, I don't feel marginalised; I simply expect to see a few more quaint spellings. I can't see any harm in choosing one over the other. –  J.R. Commented May 30, 2012 at 10:13
• @clabacchio: Spelling is a matter of orthographical convention rather than dialect. It depends in part on whether you identify yourself with one convention rather than the other. –  Barrie England Commented May 30, 2012 at 11:43

I think you're possibly worrying unduly about this. Both the UK and US have active electronics industries and research programmes and UK speakers are used to reading documents written by US speakers and vice versa. I aslo wonder how much difference there really will be for your purposes anyway, beyond a few minor spelling differences.

So I would just choose the variant that's most practical for you: are you more used to reading literature from US or UK researchers/manufacturers? Can your more easily get a US or UK proofreader?

• 3 Well, speaking as an American, I do find the occasional British spelling of words like "programmes" to be rather jarring. However, technical folks are smart enough to deal with it, and as he said, it isn't liable to be read by a lot of Americans. –  T.E.D. Commented May 30, 2012 at 15:59
• @T.E.D. I thought that the verb to jar was connected to the sound of words. Or is that what you mean -that you can hear the different spelling? –  Qube Commented May 31, 2012 at 7:44
• upvoting here. But: The Brits spell program as programme. Get over it. T.E.D. I am American and love the fact we are all different. As for the public, who knows, our Italian friend may be the new Tesla . So, let's put unreasonable statements aside, shall we? I'm all in favor of acculturation through English. –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 15:03
• In computing, Britons almost invariably use "program", reserving "programme" for what's on TV. It's definitely true that differences are more noticeable in colloquial English than technical documents, give or take some -izes. –  Stuart F Commented May 6 at 12:06

The International Organization for Standardization favours British spellings, spelling the -ise/-ize suffix with a z (which is valid, though rare, in British usage, and standard in American usage).

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry has settled on the British spelling (and pronunciation) of aluminium (not the American aluminum ), but the American spelling of sulfur (not the British sulphur ).

That might give you some guidance. (This system is known as Oxford spelling .)

• Do you have a source for the first claim? I'd like to know more about official writing guidelines. Thank you! –  clabacchio Commented Oct 17, 2013 at 11:26
• It's just what I've observed. However, a bit of searching finds a reference on a page at the Catalan university UPF . I don't see a reference on the ISO site itself . –  TRiG Commented Oct 17, 2013 at 11:56

Based on your question, it seems that you are free to choose so, you can choose which English to use based on your, personal preference.

The main reason for choosing one form of English, whatever the context, is your audience. Who you will be communicating with, in the language.

You mentioned that it will most likely be European people, so , you can use British. As far as I know, American English is not the language of any European country (not even the UK) so it is not necessary to limit yourself to it. It is one, particular dialect that is very different from others. There is no particular need to use it, unless you know beforehand, that you will be communicating mainly or only with, people who speak American English.

Generally, there is no problem speaking or writing in, the English form of English. I have not had any problems communicating with other people from the English-speaking world (apart from Americans) and the non, English-speaking world, when speaking and writing in, English English. I have visited a lot of continental Europe and met many continentals who spoke English. Generally, I had no problems in being understood by them. The only exception being two, different people, who were learning American English, in particular.

• 1 I pretty much agree with this answer (so +1). However, as an American I found it rather amusing that "English English" is simply being sold as a choice, while American English is something you would be "limiting yourself to". Again, I agree on a factual basis, but it wasn't hard to guess the author of this answer was British. :-) –  T.E.D. Commented May 30, 2012 at 15:54

In Canada we see this contrast all the time. While British English spellings are standard here for government documents, other industries vary. As other responders have noted, choose one and stay consistent, or your readers will get annoyed.

• Very astute observation that Canadian English varies by industry. Government and banking are more inclined to British terms, while in the auto industry, Canadians have trunks and hoods, not boots and bonnets. –  M. K. Hunter Commented Nov 8, 2014 at 15:57

I don't think it matters as long as you specify. Being English though it does annoy me when I hear English people in my own Country speaking American English words, such as 'Gotten' also 'Skedule' instead of schedule. American English is basically (2 LL's) a 300 year old version of English.

• 1 "Gotten" is an archaic form in most of England, but Wiktionary says it's still used in Ireland and Northern Britain , as well in as the U.S. So some people in your country use it without having borrowed it from American English. –  Peter Shor Commented Nov 8, 2014 at 14:42
• Saying that American English is a 300-year-old version of British English is a vast oversimplification of the process through which languages develop, and it is not germane to the question at hand. I do affirm that consistency is more important than the choice between the two. –  M. K. Hunter Commented Nov 8, 2014 at 15:55
• I agree. Who cares as long as you specify. I wonder if anybody around here has ever been in this situation. As an American, I have translated a lot of academic bumph into English using BrE spelling for use in the UK and never had any issues. –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 14:55
• Modern British English is also a 300 year old version of the same English that US English is derived from! –  user184130 Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 19:34
• Also I'm afraid that, even though I am a BrE speaker, I say skedule. It was a word I never used until I lived in Japan and then, because of the nature of my work, I used it multiple times a day. I would find it almost impossible to change now. –  user184130 Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 19:42

I have worked as a technical writer for several decades, mainly semiconductors and embedded software. Nearly all of that work has used American spelling and vocabulary, because that is the largest target market.

Edit: based on the comments and other answer, to clarify what I meant by this: do what the target readers expect. And, even more importantly, be consistent.

• I knew a guy years ago who worked in Saudi for oil companies, and he used to talk about doing joined up writing. Funny, huh? That said, I should think the target market is the broader international public who is assumed, in these technical areas, to at least have a working knowledge of English. –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 15:01
• @Lambie Yes, the market is international but most people are used to seeing documents in US English (because, historically, they have been the largest suppliers of the technology). –  user184130 Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 19:42
• This may not be about IT etc. –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 20:17
• @Lambie True. (p.s. I didn't understand your comment about "joined up writing" - because he was writing in Arabic?) –  user184130 Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 20:24

Having read through all the responses, and being both an Engineer and linguist, I would have to say that in many instances British English terminology is clearer than US English terminology. The term "brake-disc" makes total sense to me, whereas "rotor" makes absolutely no sense to me at all, unless of course you add a context.

I don't want to enter into a discussion about who was the originator of the words, nor who was first with an idea, but clearly just as terminology seems to be a company specific thing, it is also a cultural one too.

Use American English, not only are we more handsome, but more people speak and read American English, therefore potentially making your document more ubiquitous.

The Brits will be able to read it anyways. Other countries are starting to speak American English more these days as well, as opposed to English, another thing to consider.

This all assuming your document holds relevance in all English speaking nations.

• 1. What evidence have you for stating that other countries are starting to speak American English? 2. I am amused to see that you speak of American English "as opposed to English". I am a speaker of British English but, like most teachers and linguists, I consider both my own variety and the American variety to be English. Do you thing of American English as a distinct language? –  tunny Commented Nov 8, 2014 at 19:47
• Talk about jingoistic, you win hands down on that score. And as I have made a vow of protest (not silence), I will say this: You might want to take your argument to the White House, they would probably agree with it. [yuck, yuck, yuck] –  Lambie Commented Jun 30, 2018 at 14:59

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What is the MLA’s stance on the use of British spelling?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

MLA publications generally follow the American spelling preferences listed in Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary and Merriam-Webster’s Unabridged . When you are writing a paper for a class in the United States, it is sensible to use American spelling, but in other contexts British spelling may be appropriate. Read our post on writing a thesis in British English .

Differences in American and British English: 9 Spelling Variations Explained

Table of contents, introduction, why are there differences between american and british english, american vs british english spelling: the main differences, 1. words ending in “-our” vs. “-or”.

2. Words Ending in “-ise” or “-ize” vs. “-ize”

3. Words Ending in “-yse” vs. “-yze”

Verbs in British English that are spelled with -yse at the end are always spelled with -yze at the end in American English.

4. Words Ending in “-er” vs. “-re”

5. Words Ending in “-og” vs. “-ogue”

Note that in American English, words ending in “-og” are more common than those ending in “-ogue”. However, some words, such as “synagogue”, are still spelled with “-ogue” in both British and American English.

6. Words with Double Consonants

7. Words Ending in “-ence” vs. “-ense”

8. Words with double vowels

9. Other spelling differences

Which One Should You Use?

Is british or american spelling more correct, can using the wrong spelling affect my credibility, can i switch between british and american spelling within the same document, is it okay to use slang and informal language in both british and american english.

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When writing assignments in New Zealand most lecturers will expect you to spell words in the British rather than the American fashion. Note, however, that some lecturers only insist on internal consistency: it should either have totally British spelling or totally American spelling.

Ensure that your computer's spell-checker is set to the correct version of English or check a good dictionary.

The main differences between British and American spelling are as follows:

-our vs. -or

Most words ending in -our in British English are spelt -or in American English.

-re vs. -er

Words ending in -re in British English are usually written -er in American English.

-ise vs. -ize

For many verbs that end in -se or -ize, British spelling most commonly uses -ise, whereas American spelling uses -ize. Some British spelling sources, such as the Oxford English Dictionary , also prefer -ize.

-ogue vs. -og

Most words spelt -ogue in British English are spelt -og in American English.

-ll- vs. -l-

When adding a suffix (e.g. -ed, -er, -ing) to some words ending with l British spelling doubles the l, whereas American spelling does not.

Other words

Some other common words are also spelt differently.

* In British English program is used for computer software, but programme for other meanings.

Spelling tips

The -able, -ible suffix rule

(Remember, this is English, so there are always exceptions!)

The ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’ not-really-true rule

You may have heard of the ‘i before e except after c’ rule. Unfortunately, there are so many exceptions to this rule, that it is not a very true or helpful rule. A variation of this rule: ‘i before e except after c or when sounded as ‘a’ as in neighbour and weigh’ is a little more accurate but of course, there are still exceptions.

E.g. conceive, receipt, ceiling, species, seize, weigh, weird

Merriam-Webster offers a much longer but more accurate rhyme, while noting that because English developed from so many different sources, there are still exceptions!

In reality, there is only one useful spelling rule to remember: Use the spell check function in your word processing software!

For help enabling your spell check in Word, see here , and for Macs, see here.

References and further reading

Marriot, S., & Farrell, B. (1992). Common errors in written English. Chambers.

Page authorised by Director - Centre for Learner Success Last updated on 23 January, 2024

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• UK vs US English

UK vs US English | Difference, Spelling & Examples

When writing your dissertation , research paper or essay, you will have to consistently follow the conventions of a specific style of English. The most commonly used forms are:

• American English
• British English
• Australian English

Although these dialects follow many of the same rules, they also have some important differences in spelling, punctuation and word choice .

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

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Table of contents

Us vs uk spelling, us vs uk punctuation, us vs. uk verb conjugation, us vs uk abbreviations, consistency is key, why is it so complicated.

As the table below shows, the difference between UK and US spelling usually relates to just one or two letters.

The following cheat sheet outlines the preferred spelling of some words that are commonly used in academic writing .

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Correct my document today

The main punctuation differences relate to single and double quotation marks and where to place other punctuation in relation to quotations.

There are some differences in subject-verb agreement with collective nouns  (nouns referring to a group of individual things as a unified whole) and in past tense verb forms.

There is also disagreement over how to use periods in abbreviations .

Most importantly, each individual word must be spelled the same throughout your document. However, it’s also best to avoid mixing US English and UK English .

• The defense minister first travelled  to China in 2013.
• The defense minister first traveled to China in 2013.
• The defence minister first travelled to China in 2013.

In addition, the same spelling should generally be used for all forms of a word.

• The organization is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organises workshops in Tokyo.
• The organization is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organizes workshops in Tokyo.
• The organisation is headquartered in Osaka, but it usually organises workshops in Tokyo.

If you use our proofreading and editing service , you can request a specific style of English (US or UK).

After winning their independence from the British, Americans used language as a way to create their own identity. This led to many variations in spelling and punctuation, among other things. Australia also developed its own written conventions, which lie somewhere between those of the US and the UK (although they tend to be more British).

Of the three, Australian English is generally the most flexible, and US English is the least flexible. Bear in mind that the rules are not always very firm: there are many exceptions, and the preferred conventions are constantly changing.

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Abstract The British Library service known as EThOS is effectively a shop window on the amazing doctoral research undertaken in UK universities. With half a million thesis titles listed, you can uncover unique research on every topic imaginable and often download the full thesis file to use immediately for your own research. This webinar will offer a guided walk through the features and content of EThOS, and the research potential for making use of EThOS as a dataset. There was a brief sound issue during the demonstration of EThOS in this webinar, you can find more information about how to search EThOS at: https://ethos.bl.uk/Help.do

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Defence vs. Defense: What’s the Difference?

Home » Defence vs. Defense: What’s the Difference?

The words defence and defense can be confusing for those not sure of their differences, and not knowing which to use can cause a writer to second-guess his or her work, even though there might not be anything wrong with it.

Do these words have different meanings or different functions in a sentence? Are they just variants of the same word? How exactly are they pronounced?

In this post, I want to answer each of these questions so that you will never again have to second-guess yourself while writing either defence or defense.

What is the Difference Between Defence and Defense?

Defence and Defense are both nouns, and they have a few different meanings.

• The act of defending against attack, danger, or injury.
• The act of defending a legal case.
• The team or those players of a team attempting to stop the opposition from scoring.

Here are a few sentence examples,

• The enemy attacked us, but thankfully we had a strong military defense ready to deploy.
• The defence presented its case powerfully.
• The Green Bay Packers’ defense is the best in the league.

Okay, you are probably still wondering, “How do I know which one to use?”

The answer to that question is surprisingly simple, as the only thing separating these two spellings is a dialectal difference.

That’s right; there is no difference in meaning or function between defence and defense. They are simply different spellings of the same word.

When to Use Defence

Defence (spelled with a “c”) is the preferred spelling of the word in British English. If you find yourself writing to a primarily British audience or for a British publication, this is the correct spelling for you.

For example, Fowler’s , a well-known British usage guide, lists defence as the preferred British English spelling.

In fact, if you graph out defence vs. defense in British English book publications, you can see that it is used much more frequently. Defence is also more common in Australia and Canada than it is in American English.

It is worth noting, however, that the American spelling defense appears to be gaining ground “across the pond,” as you can see a clear uptick in defense in the last 50 years or so. Perhaps one day the preference will be reversed, but for the time being defence is still the British English spelling.

When to Use Defense

If you graph defense vs. defense across American book publications, you can see that for the last 100 years, defense has been the preferred spelling and, as we saw above, is gaining worldwide influence.

Some claim that this spelling is a better spelling of the word because it more closely resembles the word from which it was derived (the Latin dēfēnsa ) and has a greater consistency with other words like defensible .

Defences or Defenses?

For example, the American-British spelling distinction doesn’t carry over to all derivatives of defence / defense .

It holds true for words like defences / defenses , and defenceless / defenseless , but not for other words like defensive, defensiveness, defensively, and defensible .

The words  defensive, defensiveness, defensively, and defensible are spelled with an “s” everywhere in the English-speaking world.

Pronunciation of Defence / Defense

How do you pronounce defense? The traditional pronunciation of defense is with the stress on the second syllable.

• Defense = di- fen[t]s

As a result of sports commentators, however, it is now common to hear defense pronounced with the stress on the first syllable in athletic contexts.

• Defense = dee -fen[t]s

If you talking about a military or legal strategy, you should use the first pronunciation. The second pronunciation is limited only to sports related contexts.

Can Defense Be a Verb?

In any bit of formal writing, defense is not to be used as a verb.

It is, occasionally, used in sports related contexts to mean, “defend against.”

• The Chicago Bulls defensed (defended against) the Detroit Pistons offense spectacularly tonight.

Even in sports related contexts it is uncommon and should be avoided. For example, The AP Stylebook says never to use defense as a verb.

Remember the Difference

Given that the difference between these two words is similar to the difference between offense and offence , I will give you the same trick to remember defence vs. defense.

Defen c e is the British spelling and has a “ C ” in it. Think of this “ C ” as representing the Royal C rown of the United Kingdom.

Defen s e is the American spelling and has an “ S ” in it. Think of this “ S ” as representing the word “ S tates” in United S tates.

Is it defense or defence ? While these words have the same meaning, they are spelled differently in different regions. It’s important that you keep your audience in mind when using defense vs. defence .

Defence (spelled with a “c”) should be used in British English.

Defense (spelled with an “s”) should be used in American English.

In all uses other than sports, the pronunciation with the stress on the second syllable is preferred.

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British or American English? -An investigation of awareness of the differences in British and American vocabulary and spelling

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British English is the variety of English taught in Ghanaian schools, but influences of American English due to different media exposure have affected students' use of English. The objective of this study was to investigate the extent to which University of Ghana students mix American English with British English and their ability to differentiate between the two varieties. It also sought to examine students' attitudes towards these two varieties of English. The sample group used in this investigation consisted of twenty students from University of Ghana. They filled in a questionnaire which investigated vocabulary and had a spelling dictation to investigate spelling. The study showed that all of the students mixed American and British features but could not differentiate between the two varieties. Though students chose British English as the correct form of English in Ghana, a majority of the students had a higher preference for American English. However, most of them thought that none of the two varieties was superior to the other. The study has shown that American English is gradually finding its way into the Ghanaian community and is affecting students' correct usage of British English.

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This thesis revolves around two main research questions: ‘Should the English used in the Netherlands be considered a second-language variety or should it simply be regarded as learner English?’ and ‘Can Schneider’s Dynamic Model be extended to account for non-postcolonial, Expanding Circle contexts such as the Netherlands?’ Chapter 1 describes the motivations for the project and the theoretical and methodological framework. Chapter 2 explores the relevant models in the field of World Englishes (WEs) and identifies a lack of in-depth research on European settings in general and the Netherlands in particular, despite their dynamism in terms of the spread and development of English. Chapters 3 to 5 address three criteria established to answer research question 1, concerning the functions of, attitudes towards and forms of English in the Netherlands, respectively. Chapter 3, on the functions of English in the Netherlands, develops a comprehensive sociolinguistic profile covering the history of English contact, the present demographics of English spread, and the domains of education, science, business, advertising, public administration and the media. It reveals a widespread assumption of English competence in daily life in the Netherlands and increasing intranational use of English to construct cosmopolitan, scholarly or subculture identities. On this basis, the chapter concludes that English functions as a second language in Dutch society. Chapter 4 explores the second criterion for research question 1, attitudes towards English, by way of a large-scale questionnaire. Some results support the notion of English as a second language in the Netherlands; for example, it is acquired in wider society and not just within the confines of the foreign-language classroom. Others, however, are indicative of a foreign or learner language; in particular, BrE remains the main target model and ‘Dutch English’ is rarely viewed in a positive light. The chapter also identifies three groups of people: an instrumental group, whose participants regard English as personally important, but place great value on Dutch as well; and two peripheral groups: an anglophile group and an anti-English group. Chapter 5 focuses on the third criterion for research question 1, the forms of English in the Netherlands. It first outlines a range of potential morphosyntactic, lexical and pragmatic/discoursal features of Dutch English. Next, it describes the development of the Corpus of Dutch English, the first Expanding Circle corpus based on the design of the written components of the International Corpus of English (ICE). The chapter then presents a case study of the progressive aspect. The first part, a comparative corpus analysis, reveals no strict divide between Dutch English and the second-language varieties under investigation, yet marked differences compared to Dutch learner data. In the second part, a grammaticality judgement survey, some evidence of developing local norms is identified. The findings from chapters 3 to 5 make clear that, in answer to research question 1, the Netherlands cannot be said unequivocally to be either a second-language or a learner variety. It is acknowledged, however, that this is partly attributable to the categorical nature of the question. Therefore, Chapter 6 turns to research question 2, seeking to determine whether the developments in the Netherlands can better be explained by a developmental approach such as Schneider’s (2003, 2007) Dynamic Model. It identifies a number of developments in the Netherlands, both historical and present-day, that parallel the predictions of the first three phases of the Dynamic Model. However, as Schneider (2014) himself recently noted, these need to be selectively extracted from what is predominantly a colonial framework. The thesis concludes that this and other models need to move away from a colonisation-driven approach and towards a globalisation-driven one to explain the continued spread and evolution of English today.

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