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FREE BHIC-106 Solved Assignment English Medium 2022-23

  Free BHIC106 Solved Assignment English Medium 2022-23 for July 2022 and January 2023 Session

B.H.I.C-106

RISE OF MODERN WEST - I

Note: There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

1. Discuss Takahashi and Rodney Hilton’s views on the debate on transition from feudalism to capitalism. 

2. Comment on the nature of trade and exchange in the sixteenth century. 

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

3. How do you understand the rural base for the commercial revolution? 

4. Discuss the link between science and the Renaissance. 

5. Comment on the rise of the print culture and Reformation. 

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

6. Maritime Insurance 

7. The ‘Great Discoveries’of the late fifteenth century 

8. Maurice Dobb on the transition from feudalism to capitalism 

9. The demographic trends in the sixteenth century 

10. Features of Western Absolutism 

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IGNOU BHIC-106 - The Rise of the Modern West-1

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BHIC-106: Rise of the Modern West – I

Ignou solved assignment solution for 2022-23, if you are looking for bhic-106 ignou solved assignment solution for the subject rise of the modern west – i, you have come to the right place. bhic-106 solution on this page applies to 2022-23 session students studying in bahih courses of ignou., looking to download all solved assignment pdfs for your course together, bhic-106 solved assignment solution by gyaniversity.

Assignment Code: BHIC-106/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: BHIC-106

Assignment Name: Rise of Modern West-1

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Answer the following in about 500 words each. 20x2

Q1) Discuss Takahashi and Rodney Hilton’s views on the debate on transition from feudalism to capitalism.

Ans ) Kohachiro Takahashi, a Marxist economist historian, insisted in the beginning that the discussion be expanded beyond the English situation to take into account the experience of feudalism in Continental Europe. Takahashi disagreed with Sweezy's interpretation of feudalism as an isolated, closed economic system that produced primarily for consumption and not for trade. Different production methods, including feudalism, were used to manufacture and distribute commodities. Understanding the production process is crucial. Takahashi thus firmly backed Dobb's contention that rather than an external force like trade, the demise of feudalism was caused by internal causes like class conflict.

Takahashi, however, argues that Dobb's description of feudalism was flawed because it began with the abstractions of feudal landed property and serfdom. Rodney Hilton disagreed with Sweezy's assertion and contended that the demise of feudalism was not caused by international trade. Sweezy's perspective was founded on the infamous Pirenne thesis. Famous mediaeval historian from Belgium, Henri Pirenne. He asserted that the economic downturn in the West did not correlate with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire but rather with the Mediterranean's closing as a result of Muslim rule over the region's eastern shore in the seventh century. On the other hand, the reopening of the Mediterranean during the Crusades of the eleventh century marked the beginning of Western Europe's economic recovery.

Like Dobb, Hilton agreed that internal class conflict had a role in the fall of feudalism. It was the primary factor in the decline of feudalism, which was a result of the expansion of the productive forces. The feudal system of production saw periods of prosperity and periods of decline as a result of the dynamic element of class conflict between the overlords and the peasants. While attempting to maximise their rental income, the nobility and princes also participated in political rivalry. The ensuing search for higher rent first encouraged technological advancement, the growth of towns and commerce, and productivity gains, only to subsequently contribute to the decline of feudalism. Hilton emphasised how the forces of production expanded when feudalism reached its pinnacle of development.

Rent disputes become more intense in the fourteenth century. Declining rent revenue is only partially countered by increases in governmental taxation, violence, and looting. Landlords who relied on feudal rent as a source of revenue turned to the state for support as it no longer served as a motivator for production. Both the quantity of tenants made to work on their lord's estate and the cost of rent decreased. In general, landlords' legal rights over tenants declined. The manor's rich and poor were stratified in part by money rent. A land market was established by land sales and purchases. Estates of wealthy manor peasants increased at the expense of everyone else. More farmers accepted wage jobs. In a market-driven, capitalist economy, wealthy peasants and lower nobility were the most productive producers. Peasant social differentiation and Hilton's vivid analysis of the role of class conflict in the rise and fall of feudalism were the main topics of discussion. Merrington's ideas served as a potent reminder of the significance of class conflict and the internal consistency of feudalism's demise.

Q2) Comment on the nature of trade and exchange in the sixteenth century.

Ans ) In the 1600s, European trade changed dramatically. With Ottoman authority developing in the East, Italian businessmen faced challenges in the Eastern Mediterranean. The dominance of Italian merchant-bankers in Asiatic commodity trade, such as spices and cotton, became too suffocating for other merchant communities. The trips and considerable investment in their success show Italy's attempt to break away from its dominance in the eastern trade.

Italian City States

There were two distinct phases in the 16th century when the economies of the Italian states developed:

The first half of the sixteenth century, which was characterised by political strife and war, saw a progressive fall in production capabilities in significant industries like textiles as well as in the overall volume of trade, particularly on the peninsula.

Although there was some recovery in the second half of the century, it was not at the levels of the first. This was primarily due to the fact that goods like silk, which were once monopolised and supplied only by the Italians, had spread to other parts of the continent. The items were no longer exclusively supplied by Italian merchants.

During the sixteenth century, the types of goods that passed through the ports and along the routes of the peninsula did not change signiûcantly; however, what changed were the quantities. In the Mediterranean basin, there was a trade in local products as food products cereals, wine and oil and other commodities which included sea salt from the islands, sugar, raw wool, cotton, alum, dyes, and leather hides. In addition, there was iron, as well as manufactured goods such as textiles from Tuscany and Lombardy, Lombard armaments, books, Venetian glass, and paper.

Sixteenth century Italy thus saw many changes that affected practically every sector of economic life. They brought about profound changes in the systems that had sustained the development of the economic and social life of previous centuries. The outcome was a changed equilibrium between the different regions. Some, such as those of the central and northern areas, appeared to regress, at least in comparison with other strong European areas; others managed to find room for great development, as in the case of Genoa, and Venice continued to play an important role, whereas regions in south suffered greatly on account of the wars and conflicts in the eastern Mediterranean on account of rising Ottoman power.

The beginning of the sixteenth century saw the Portuguese traders involving themselves primarily in the trade of Africa and Asia. Great ships were assembled with armed retinues to ensure dominance and encroach over the ancient routes across west and north Africa, which supplied important commodities as bullions, primarily gold. The Portuguese organized the expeditions to the East on an annual basis. At the start of the century, the ships left with cargoes of minerals and metals, including copper, cinnabar, coral, lead, and above all silver and coins.

Spanish investment in Americas was more intensive and consuming than the Portuguese. Unlike the Portuguese, who only desired to create a structure of transference of produce from East to Europe and did not really invest heavily in its possessions in Americas, the Spaniards, undertook long and acrimonious campaigns of conflict and conquest over the indigenous cultures. The result was the Spanish empire which covered most of the explored new world, south of equator. The organization of the inûux of precious metals to Seville certainly left the greatest mark on the sixteenth century, but during that period, colonial policies were developed and pursued that exclusively affected relations between America and Spain; they were later to have consequences for the whole of Europe, reaching far beyond that century.

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. 10x3

Q1) How do you understand the rural base for the commercial revolution?

Ans ) In the realm of trade, commerce, and related institutional developments, the entire infrastructure development of what became known as the "commercial revolution" took place against the backdrop of swift changes in the agrarian economy. The introduction of the three-cropping system, new implements and tools for farming, the building of dikes to reclaim land from the sea in the north, the draining of marshes in England and France, along with the introduction of new crops from the New World, completely changed how agriculture was organised and carried out in different parts of Europe.

The feudal system broke down as a result of internal rifts brought on by the demographic changes of the 14th century, which were principally brought on by widespread depopulation brought on by the plague and other diseases as well as by ongoing conflicts and misery and deaths brought on by them. Through a significant portion of the 14th century, these actions and occurrences caused agrarian areas and marketplaces for agriculturally related goods to contract. Various regions of Europe did not experience a new population surge until the end of the 15th century. Due to the increased need, this increase in population put strain on the land.

A lot of literature about agriculture started to appear. With the invention of the printing press, many of these were later printed and widely disseminated. Major works on agriculture and animal husbandry were written by Martin Grosser, Johann Coler, and Conrad Heresbach in Germany; Oliver de Serres and Jean Libault in France; Anthony Fitzherbert and Thomas Tusser in England. Cottage industries expanded quickly between the 14th to the middle of the 16th centuries, mainly in the countryside and away from cities and towns. The development of agriculture and the increased demand for textiles necessitated the use of new tools and energy sources. As a result, several began to diversify their businesses by making agricultural tools and textiles closer to the locations where raw materials were produced.

Q2) Discuss the link between science and the Renaissance.

Ans ) There are undeniable parallels between science and the Renaissance. Extremely significant concepts on the nature of the physical cosmos were developed as a result of astronomical research. These concepts were interpreted as direct challenges to the current scholastic and religious cosmos-theory. The heavenly bodies had only been seen by mediaeval theologians in the context of their rigorous vision of the cosmos. According to Ptolemy, the earth is at the centre of the universe. Ptolemy's framework. Theological reasoning and biblical scriptures were regarded as the ultimate sources of truth. As scientific curiosity rose in the 15th century, a Polish astronomer proved that the earth and planets orbit the sun. Christopher Copernicus He developed the heliocentric theory, which described the earth as a sphere that rotated once every 24 hours around the sun and its own axis. The Ptolemaic viewpoint caused this theory to be long disproved.

Galileo Galilei, who was in charge of the development of astronomy afterward, studied this work. He questioned the Aristotelian view of the universe and was heavily inspired by Platonic notions. Galileo was able to create a brand-new vision of the cosmos, in large part because he observed the stars via the telescope, the greatest invention of his day. His research threw new light on the solar system by highlighting the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and the fact that the earth was just like any other planet. The church did not accept these viewpoints. He became well-known for his work in Italian Dialogue in the two main global systems, but the church tried him for heresy. The development of empiricism as a result of the scientific revolution was crucial to humanism. This approach called for gathering information through data collection, experimentation, and observation in order to create general laws.

Q3) Comment on the rise of the print culture and Reformation.

Ans ) While research on the Renaissance frequently ignores the influence of print culture, in the case of the Reformation it is hardly possible to do so. The Reformation was the first religious movement to utilise the printing press, as Geoffroy Atkinson notes. Then, we truly witness a movement that was influenced by press forces from the start. In actuality, the printing press was crucial in starting the Reformation. The Reformation was the first movement to use the press as a mass medium to mobilise public support for its cause, it can be further argued. Printing, according to Luther, was "God's highest and most extreme work of grace, whereby the business of the Gospel is pressed forward."

The extensive notoriety they gained was made possible by the German translation, printing, and dissemination of the theses. It would not be feasible to comprehend how a message intended for a small group of academics might gain such enormous popularity unless we take a closer look at these processes. This implies that we must carefully examine the individual and collective actions of the printers, translators, proof-readers, and distributors in order to understand how three distinct editions of the theses were printed and distributed in three different German towns almost simultaneously. By no means was there a certain class of individuals who harboured a strong dislike of clericalism. In fact, it crossed class boundaries and expressed itself among upper-class, middle-class, and bourgeois segments of society. As Hexter notes, new polarities, such as lay-clerical, secular-religious, or church-state, formed that crossed status and class boundaries.

Section-III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. 6x5

Q1) Maritime Insurance

Ans ) Brokers and merchants oversaw the development of maritime insurance as a commercial practise to protect against the risks of oceanic trade. By 1504, the business of offering insurance had grown to the point that it was supported by over 600 persons in the city of Antwerp alone. Over the years, many types of insurance have been developed to protect against losses to goods caused by war, conflicts, and highway looting as well as losses caused by fire in storage facilities among other facilities.

In Italian cities like Pisa and Genoa, some of the first written insurance contracts date all the way back to the 1340s. Italian markets were the first in Europe to learn about and use insurance contracts. The practise started to spread throughout England, France, and the Netherlands during the 16th century. The laws governing insurance were initially applied globally to marine insurance and were derived from Italian businessmen known as "Law Merchants." In the event of a dispute, the policy writer, and the policy holder both select one arbitrator, and these two arbitrators select a third impartial arbitrator. The parties are obligated to accept the majority judgement.

Q2) The ‘Great Discoveries’ of the late fifteenth century

Ans ) The "Great Discoveries" of the late fifteenth century were a result of European colonialism and exploration; Spain and Portugal's victories marked a significant turning point in human history. The three main oceans bordered European exploration, expansion, colonialism, and possessions. Braudel claims that the conquest of the high seas gave Europe long-lasting world dominance. For Portugal, colonies included the Cape Verde, Madeira, and Azores atolls, the Brazilian coast, fortified communities in East and West Africa, stretches of coastline in Africa like Angola and Mozambique, outposts in the Indian Ocean like Ormuz, Goa, Calicut, and Colombo, and outposts in the East in Macao, Malacca, Java, the Celebes, and the Moluccas. The Canaries, West Indian Islands, all of Central America, some of South America, and the Philippines were among Spain's more condensed territories.

Q3) Maurice Dobb on the transition from feudalism to capitalism

Ans ) The subject of switching from one form of production to another has been a major topic of the publications on the European economy that have been tried. Thus, the study of the "transition from feudalism to capitalism" has been the early modern period's major focus. Studies focused on the issue have been built on Maurice Dobb's concept of transition, and much debate has taken place over its causes and contributing aspects. Although "feudalism" and "capitalism," the two fundamental poles, remained firmly established inside the Marxist framework.

Similarly, Robert Brenner criticised what he saw as a sort of demographic determinism utilised by "Neo-Malthusian" historians to explain the developments and transformations in pre-industrial agrarian societies in his analysis of agrarian class structure and economic developments in pre-industrial Europe. Scholars like M. M. Postan, John Hatcher, and Emanuel Le Roy Ladurie responded angrily to this. Scholars like Guy Bois, Patricia Croot, David Parker, T. H. Aston, and many more have actively participated in the discussion over the years as its form and breadth have grown and extended. 

Q4) The demographic trends in the sixteenth century

Ans ) By the sixteenth century, different facets of the age's economic and social life began to show the population rebound, not only in the records of the churches and parishes but also in other areas. There was a clear drive toward the development of the "megapolis" of the later period, even while the geographical division, in terms of the rural or urban bases of the scattered people, followed patterns similar to those of the previous century. With the advent of Palermo, Rome, London, and Lisbon by the turn of the century, there were around eight cities. Similar to this, there are now thirteen middle-sized cities, up from seven, with a population of about 50,000. Overall, the percentage of the people living in urban areas increased significantly, rising from 5.6% at the start of the 16th century to around 7.6% by the end. A portion of the influence of the preceding period's poor agrarian growth and food scarcity on population trends was lessened by improvements in diet and the inflow of food commodities from the New World.

Q5) Features of Western Absolutism

Ans ) The older feudal social forms were distinct from the centralised monarchy of France, England, and Spain. The characteristics of these absolutist states have been the subject of ongoing discussion. The gradual abolition of serfdom, the waning of the vassalage system, the abolition of the necessity to pay feudal taxes to the overlords, and the rise of the mercantile bourgeoisie that had emerged in the mediaeval towns all reduced the class power of the feudal lords. A militarised Absolutist State was created in its place, with a centralised system of political and legal repression.

The new monarch was given new and exceptional powers. This strengthened the royal power structure that was used to suppress the peasant masses at the bottom of the social scale. These new absolute states were weapons designed for conflict. They were innovators of the professional army, which was made up of both local recruits and foreign mercenaries who were very important. The kingdoms of Western Europe had made enormous strides by 1560 in the areas of territorial unity, administrative centralization, and growth of royal power, which caused them to change from feudal monarchies into independent territorial states. Because of their unique approaches to government, they were referred to as the New Monarchies.

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IGNOU BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022-23

IGNOU BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022-23 : BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022 , BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022-23, BHIC 106 Assignment 2022-23 , BHIC 106 Assignment, IGNOU BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022-23 IGNOU Assignments 2022-23- Gandhi National Open University had recently uploaded the assignments of the present session for MEG Programme for the year 2022-23. Students are recommended to download their Assignments from this webpage itself.

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• 30th Sept, 2023 (if enrolled in the January 2023 session).

Assignment – I

1. Discuss Takahashi and Rodney Hilton’s views on the debate on transition from feudalism to capitalism. 

Ans. The debate on the transition from feudalism to capitalism, originally published in Science and Society in the early 1950s, is one of the most famous episodes in the development of Marxist historiography since the war. It ranged such distinguished contributors as Maurice Dobb, Paul Sweezy, Kohachiro Takahshi and Christopher Hill against each other in a common, critical discussion. Verso has now published the complete texts of the original debate, to which subsequent discussion has returned again and again, together with significant new materials produced by historians since then. These include articles on the same themes by such French and Italian historians as Georges Lefebvre and Giuliano Procacci.

The crucial theoretical influence on Hilton and most other British Communist historians formed during the 1940s and 1950s came from Maurice Dobb’s Studies in the development of capitalism, first published in 1946, which proposed a model of the feudal mode of production that became the theoretical benchmark for all subsequent debates over the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Dobb followed Marx’s Capital in explaining England’s ‘truly revolutionary path’ to capitalism through class struggle—the ‘prime mover’—and class differentiation in terms of property rights to land, and defined the historical and theoretical problems with which Hilton grappled throughout his life as a historian. Marx’s theory of history rests on three pillars: a theory of class determination and class struggle; a theory of technological development; and a theory of the state, which—since the state requires a surplus to operate effectively—must include a political economy of markets.

However, for complex political and historiographical reasons that cannot be explored here, Dobb based his model on class struggle alone. This gave rise to two serious weaknesses in his and his followers’ approach to the transition from feudalism to capitalism. First, Dobb’s model was devised in essence to explain the transition to capitalism, that is, to explain why the feudal mode of production was destined to fail in a ‘general crisis’ vaguely dated between the fourteenth and the seventeenth century. Dobb argued that this failure was caused by systemic disincentives to capital accumulation and innovation, including peasant over-exploitation; but he did not have a convincing explanation for why the feudal mode of production had been capable of expanding, territorially, economically and technologically, for more than half a millennium before the crisis. The absence of a positive theory of development—which is a central feature of the Marxist theory of history and which must, ultimately, be mediated by some kind of scarcity-based transactions—probably also expressed the ‘anti-market bias’ that coloured Dobb’s views of socialist planned economies when he wrote the Studies in the 1930s and 1940s. At that time, as he subsequently recalled, he underestimated ‘the role of prices and economic incentives’ in socialist economies, and his view of the feudal economy was clearly analogous. That bias, and the subordination of positive incentives and markets in Dobb’s scheme were reinforced by his subsequent debate with the American Marxist economist Paul Sweezy, a debate that made canonical the misleading theoretical alternative among Marxists between long-distance trade as an exogenous, independent cause of change, or ‘prime mover’, and petty commodity production as an endogenous source of historical evolution.

2. Comment on the nature of trade and exchange in the sixteenth century.

Ans. In private communication, a prominent historian suggested that our debate with O’Rourke and Williamson in the April 2004 issue of the European Review of Economic History – on the birth of globalization – seems like a sporting event in which players invent rules while the game is underway. The metaphor is apt in that contrasting definitions of the term ‘globalization’ have indeed led inevitably to divergent conclusions regarding whether globalization was born in the 16th century ((Flynn and Giráldez 2004) or in the early-nineteenth century when certain prices converged (O’Rourke and Williamson 2004).

 Tea, silk, and porcelain were traded for wool, tin, lead, and silver. Slowly various goods from the East became available to the wealthy elite of Europe.  These goods were rare and considered luxury items.

Although trade between the East and West goes back thousands of years to the treacherous land crossing called the Silk Road, by the 16th century countries were establishing less dangerous and more profitable sea routes for important trade between Asia and Europe.  In China during the reign of the Kangxi emperor, 1661 to 1722, there was a great expansion in trade between the East and West.   In the 16th century, European mariner adventurers and traders explored the world in search of wealth and new shipping routes; in the 17th century these sea trade routes were firmly established.  The Dutch, British, and Portuguese vied with each other to cement trade relationships by sending ambassadors, emissaries, and expensive gifts from the royal courts of Europe to the Imperial courts of China.  The Portuguese dominated this trade in the 16th century, the Dutch in the early to mid-17th century, and the English arrived at the end of the 17th century.

During this time porcelain was produced only in China.  The secret ingredient, kaolin, and the process of high firing, was unknown to the rest of the world. Porcelain was prized for its strength, translucence, and its pure white color.  Porcelain was so associated with its origin, that  this expensive and important ceramic came to be known simply as “china,” “fine china,” or “china ware.”

In the 17th century, China began to create porcelain specifically intended for sale on the European market. Some of the earliest pieces of this “export” porcelain, Kraakware, dates to the late Ming dynasty, just before the Kangxi period.  The name “Kraakware” is believed to have come from Portuguese merchant ships called “carracks,” a type of masted sailing ship.  Kraakware is always decorated in underglaze blue and often characterized by a central image of flowers, birds, or animals, surrounded by panels with Chinese or other symbols. Porcelains decorated with different colored enamels became available in the mid-17th century, which coincided with the use of European motifs and subject matter on Chinese-produced goods that were intended for sale in the West.  Around 1740 Europeans began to send engravings to China for custom-decorated services. These often very large sets of tablewares bore beautiful hand-painted monograms, armorial crests, or more elaborate allegorical subject matter and even religious scenes such as the nativity. The market for these Eastern items created a fad in Europe for Chinese taste and decoration, called “Chinoiserie.”  The majority of pieces had a flower pattern that may have incorporated a beautiful landscape or figures in a pastoral scene.  This fad and these motifs were so lasting, that even though they are no longer the height of fashion, they are still produced and used today.  These small articles, originally made for everyday use by the aristocracy and rich burghers, have risen to being regarded as works of art in their own right. They tie us in the 21st century to the superlative handmade craftmanship of the past, and the incredible sea-roads these pieces travelled to be collected and revered for so long.

Assignment – II

3. How do you understand the rural base for the commercial revolution?

Ans. The Commercial Revolution consisted of the creation of a European economy based on trade, which began in the 11th century and lasted until it was succeeded by the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century. Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe. This development created a new desire for trade, and trade expanded in the second half of the Middle Ages (roughly 1000 to 1500 AD). Newly forming European states, through voyages of discovery, were looking for alternative trade routes in the 15th and 16th centuries, which allowed the European powers to build vast, new international trade networks. Nations also sought new sources of wealth and practiced mercantilism and colonialism. The Commercial Revolution is marked by an increase in general commerce, and in the growth of financial services such as banking, insurance and investing.

The term itself was used by Karl Polanyi in his The Great Transformation: “Politically, the centralized state was a new creation called forth by the Commercial Revolution. Later the economic historian Roberto Sabatino Lopez, used it to shift focus away from the English Industrial Revolution. In his best-known book, The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages (1971, with numerous reprints), Lopez argued that the key contribution of the medieval period to European history was the creation of a commercial economy between the 11th and the 14th century, centered at first in the Italo-Byzantine eastern Mediterranean, but eventually extending to the Italian city-states and over the rest of Europe. This kind of economy ran from approximately the 14th century through the 18th century. Walt Whitman Rostow placed the beginning “arbitrarily” in 1488, the year the first European sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. Most historians, including scholars such as Robert Sabatino Lopez, Angeliki Laiou, Irving W. Raymond, and Peter Spufford indicate that there was a commercial revolution of the 11th through 13th centuries, or that it began at this point, rather than later.

4. Discuss the link between science and the Renaissance. 

Ans. During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing, anatomy and engineering. The collection of ancient scientific texts began in earnest at the start of the 15th century and continued up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. Nevertheless, some have seen the Renaissance, at least in its initial period, as one of scientific backwardness. Historians like George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike criticized how the Renaissance affected science, arguing that progress was slowed for some amount of time. Humanists favored human-centered subjects like politics and history over study of natural philosophy or applied mathematics. More recently, however, scholars have acknowledged the positive influence of the Renaissance on mathematics and science, pointing to factors like the rediscovery of lost or obscure texts and the increased emphasis on the study of language and the correct reading of texts.

Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.

5. Comment on the rise of the print culture and Reformation.

Ans. China, Japan and Korea developed the earliest kind of print technology, which was a system of hand printing. Books in China were printed by rubbing paper from AD 594 and both the sides of the book were folded and stitched. China for a long time was the major producer of printed material. China started conducting civil service examinations for its bureaucrats and its textbooks were printed in vast numbers. Print was no longer confined to scholar-officials. Merchants used print while collecting their trade information. Reading became a part of leisure activity and rich women started publishing their own poetry and plays. This new reading culture attracted new technology. In the late 19th century, Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported.

Print in Japan

Hand-printing technology was introduced by Buddhist missionaries from China into Japan around AD 768-770. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra is the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868, containing six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations. Printing of visual material led to interesting publishing practices. In the late 19th century, illustrative collections of paintings depicted an elegant urban culture and libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed material of various types – books on women, musical instruments, etc.

Print revolution is not only a new way of producing books it transformed the lives of people, changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with institutions and authorities.

A New Reading Public

The cost of books was reduced due to the print revolution. Markets were flooded with books reaching out to an ever-growing readership. It created a new culture of reading. Earlier, elites are only permitted to read books and common people used to hear sacred texts readout. Before the print revolution, books were expensive. But, the transition was not as simple as books could only be read by the literate. Printers started publishing popular ballads and folk tales illustrated with pictures for those who did not read. Oral culture entered print and printed material were orally transmitted.

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Assignment – III

6. Maritime Insurance 

Ans. Marine insurance covers the loss or damage of ships, cargo, terminals, and any transport by which the property is transferred, acquired, or held between the points of origin and the final destination. Cargo insurance is the sub-branch of marine insurance, though Marine insurance also includes Onshore and Offshore exposed property, (container terminals, ports, oil platforms, pipelines), Hull, Marine Casualty, and Marine Liability. When goods are transported by mail or courier, shipping insurance is used instead.

In December 1901 and January 1902, at the direction of archaeologist Jacques de Morgan, Father Jean-Vincent Scheil, OP found a 2.25 meter (or 88.5 inch) tall basalt or diorite stele in three pieces inscribed with 4,130 lines of cuneiform law dictated by Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BC) of the First Babylonian Empire in the city of Shush, Iran. Code of Hammurabi Law 100 stipulated repayment by a debtor of a loan to a creditor on a schedule with a maturity date specified in written contractual terms. Laws 101 and 102 stipulated that a shipping agent, factor, or ship charterer was only required to repay the principal of a loan to their creditor in the event of a net income loss or a total loss due to an Act of God. Law 103 stipulated that an agent, factor, or charterer was by force majeure relieved of their liability for an entire loan in the event that the agent, factor, or charterer was the victim of theft during the term of their charterparty upon provision of an affidavit of the theft to their creditor.

7. The ‘Great Discoveries’of the late fifteenth century 

Ans. The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian dates from 1 January 1401 (MCDI) to 31 December 1500 (MD).

In Europe, the 15th century includes parts of the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the early modern period. Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the “European miracle” of the following centuries. The architectural perspective, and the modern fields which are known today as banking and accounting were founded in Italy.

The Hundred Years’ War ended with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon. Financial troubles in England following the conflict resulted in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ended with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century.

Constantinople, known as the capital of the world and the capital of the Byzantine Empire (today’s Turkey), fell to the emerging Muslim Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the tremendously influential Byzantine Empire and, for some historians, the end of the Middle Ages. This led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, while Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of a mechanical movable type began the printing press. These two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance. The Roman papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades (the so-called Western Schism), until the Council of Constance. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century.

Islamic Spain became dissolved through the Christian Reconquista, followed by the forced conversions and the Muslim rebellion, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule and returning southern Spain to Christian rulers.

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8. Maurice Dobb on the transition from feudalism to capitalism 

Ans. The feudal system was primarily based on agrarian subsistence economy. The manor or the large tract of land was the centre of the feudal system and the manor was owned by the feudal lord. This land was allotted to the feudal lord by the overlord or the king. The feudal lords, being the superior class, did not cultivate lands themselves. The land was cultivated by serfs, who were tied to the landlords’ manor having limited control over their labour power and partial control over small patch of land on which he and his family survived. The serf was the actual tiller of the land who worked on the lord’s land (demesne) and also on the plot of land allotted to him. The serfdom was based on use of extra-economic coercion for controlling the labour and fate of serf-cultivators by feudal lords. The feudal lords enjoyed legal and judicial power and privileges over serfs. The entire system worked on mutual obligation. The king allotted land to the nobles and the nobles were supposed to provide money and soldiers to the king. Similarly, the feudal lords got the land grant and were supposed to provide protection and services to the overlords. Serfs were expected to till the feudal lord’s land and his land (a small patch of land from the lord for the subsistence of his family) and in return the lord provided them protection. So in a feudal society, the king was at the top and the serf was at the bottom of the feudal hierarchy. But apart from secular lords, the clergy or the priestly class also owned large tracts of lands and acted like feudal lords. The Catholic Church was the largest land lord of the medieval Europe which was equally oppressive despite its claim to work for the salvation of the people. In such society, access to social opportunities and status was determined by the accident of birth. The ascribed role or status of individual was assigned by virtue of factors outside his or her own control. This assigned role was rationalized as divinely ordained and natural and was legally recognized and approved by religious-normative order of the society. However, many towns also coexisted with manors in medieval Europe representing non-agrarian segment of the economy. These towns were involved in manufacturing activities. The manufacturing in these centres was done by an association of artisans, craftsman and professionals called guild. The guild was responsible for the production and sale of commodities. The quantity and quality to be produced and the price was determined by the guild. The guild was also responsible for the socio-religious aspects of its members, and their lives. The produce of the guild was sold to manors and to long-distance markets.

9. The demographic trends in the sixteenth century 

Ans. For the continent as a whole, the population growth under way by 1500 continued over the “long” 16th century until the second or third decade of the 17th century. A recent estimate by the American historian Jan De Vries set Europe’s population (excluding Russia and the Ottoman Empire) at 61.6 million in 1500, 70.2 million in 1550, and 78.0 million in 1600; it then lapsed back to 74.6 million in 1650. The distribution of population across the continent was also shifting. Northwestern Europe (especially the Low Countries and the British Isles) witnessed the most vigorous expansion; England’s population more than doubled between 1500, when it stood at an estimated 2.6 million, and 1650, when it probably attained 5.6 million. Northwestern Europe also largely escaped the demographic downturn of the mid-17th century, which was especially pronounced in Germany, Italy, and Spain. In Germany, the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) may have cost the country, according to different estimates, between 25 and 40 percent of its population.

Cities also grew, though slowly at first. The proportion of Europeans living in cities with 10,000 or more residents increased from 5.6 percent of the total population in 1500 to only 6.3 percent in 1550. The towns of England continued to suffer a kind of depression, now often called “urban decay,” in the first half of the century. The process of urbanization then accelerated, placing 7.6 percent of the population in cities by 1600, and even continued during the 17th-century crisis. The proportion of population in cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants reached 8.3 percent in 1650.

10. Features of Western Absolutism

Ans.  Absolutism is characterized by the ending of feudal partitioning, consolidation of power with the monarch, rise of state power, unification of the state laws, and a decrease in the influence of the Church and the nobility.

Absolute monarchs are also associated with the rise of professional standing armies, professional bureaucracies, the codification of state laws, and the rise of ideologies that justify the absolutist monarchy. Absolutist monarchs typically were considered to have the divine right of kings as a cornerstone of the philosophy that justified their power (as opposed to the previous order when the kings were considered vassals of the Pope and Emperor).

Absolutism or The Age of Absolutism (c. 1610 – c. 1789) is a historiographical term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites. Absolutism is typically used in conjunction with some European monarchs during the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and monarchs described as absolute can especially be found in the 16th century through the 19th century.

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IGNOU BHIC 106 Solved Assignment English Medium 2022-23

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B.H.I.C - 106

Rise of Modern West-1 BHIC 106 Solved Assignment 2022-23

Assignment I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

1. Discuss Takahashi and Rodney Hilton’s views on the debate on transition from feudalism to capitalism.  

2. Comment on the nature of trade and exchange in the sixteenth century

Assignment - II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

3. How do you understand the rural base for the commercial revolution?

4. Discuss the link between science and the Renaissance.

5. Comment on the rise of the print culture and Reformation.

Assignment - III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

6. Maritime Insurance

7. The ‘Great Discoveries’of the late fifteenth century

8. Maurice Dobb on the transition from feudalism to capitalism

9. The demographic trends in the sixteenth century

10. Features of Western Absolutism

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