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Teaching DEI Through Case Studies

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In the summer of 2020, the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement took center stage across the United States. At the height of a devastating pandemic and in the wake of several high-profile murders of Black Americans by law enforcement and others, a diverse range of citizens took to the streets to protest systemic racism and the inhumane treatment of African Americans.

Through the lens of bystander Darnella Frazier’s smartphone camera, the world watched in horror as George Floyd died at the hands of a white police officer on a street in Minneapolis. On May 25, 2020, officer Derek Chauvin knelt on Floyd’s neck for 9 minutes and 29 seconds as Floyd repeatedly said that he could not breathe. His death, along with those of Breonna Taylor and Ahmaud Arbery a few months earlier, sparked international protests and drew intense scrutiny about how African Americans are treated by the police, the criminal justice system, and their fellow citizens.

The protests of 2020 prompted many companies, organizations, and educational systems to express their public support of the BLM movement and commit to the goal of achieving racial equity and social justice. While for many companies this was likely a fleeting PR move, others announced that they were taking a hard look at their own systemic issues. Business leaders at companies in many industries began the challenging but necessary work of exposing and addressing the deep biases that have been hardwired into their organizations. The Quaker Oats Company, for example, announced its discontinuation of the 130-year-old Aunt Jemima breakfast foods brand, which had been inspired by a minstrel show song and had long perpetuated a Black stereotype.

Many businesses responded by not only committing to increasing diversity within their workforces, but also examining their supply chains and external partners. Target Corporation, headquartered in Minneapolis, pledged to “…work with diverse suppliers that are at least 51 percent owned, controlled, and operated by women; Black, Indigenous, and People of Color; LGBTQ+; veterans or persons with disabilities.” In 2020, U.S. Bank committed to “doubling its Black-owned suppliers within the next 12 months.”

Further, because of the BLM movement, many major companies are recruiting from historically black colleges and universities more than ever before. Morgan State University in Baltimore reports that its online job portal saw a “263 percent increase in employer logins between July 1, 2020, and June 30, 2021, with major companies like Apple, Bank of America, and Estée Lauder reaching out for the first time ever.”

The Growing Diversity of the Student Body

Against this backdrop of the fight for racial equity and social justice, the U.S. is undergoing a significant change in demographics. In a recent article , The Washington Post shared the following conclusions from newly released 2020 census data:

“The country … passed two more milestones on its way to becoming a majority-minority society in the coming decades: For the first time, the portion of White people dipped below 60 percent, slipping from 63.7 percent in 2010 to 57.8 percent in 2020. And the under-18 population is now majority people of color, at 52.7 percent.”

These statistics apply to our students as well as our future leaders and labor force. Businesses and those in the business of educating students for a future of fulfilling work must respond in kind to a changing college campus. Some schools already are, as shown by these recent examples:

• The University of California system announced that for the incoming 2021 class, “underrepresented students will comprise 43 percent of the new admits, with Latinx students making up 37 percent and the number of Black students being admitted increasing by 15.6 percent.”
• In July, the Governing Board of California Community Colleges (CCC) announced its approval of two new requirements, including one adding ethnic studies as a graduation requirement for students seeking associate’s degrees and another mandating that CCC schools incorporate diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) and anti-racism into their employment procedures.
• Purdue University has created a new Equity Task Force and has committed more than 75 million USD over five years to support Black students. Purdue states that the “goals of the task force are split into three categories that will measure success in making Purdue a better place for Black students, faculty, and staff: Representation, Experience, and Success.”

DEI in the Curriculum

Universities and college campuses have long been at the forefront of a range of social justice movements, codifying these movements into academic programs such as Black studies, women’s studies, disability studies, queer studies, and more. But there remains much work to be done, including in the integration of DEI content into our curricula. As educators, publishers, and academics who create scholarly content, we are all responsible for taking a close look at how we approach teaching the lessons of diversity. We must build and use curricular tools that reflect the world our students will enter and their experiences within it.

We need more case studies in our classrooms that are written by authors from a range of backgrounds and perspectives—not just by those who represent predominately white, privileged, Western viewpoints.

The traditional case study is one such tool we can use to support DEI and the changing face of business. That said, the case study, long a stalwart in business and management education, is ripe for reinvention where DEI is concerned. It’s true that case studies can expose students to the challenges of a wide variety of organizations, from global publicly traded entities to local startups to social enterprises. But it’s just as essential that cases expose students to a range of perspectives and reflect the myriad backgrounds—cultural and economical—of those who work within the featured organizations.

Moreover, the importance of DEI in case studies extends beyond their subject matter to their authorship. We need more case studies in our classrooms that are written by authors from a range of backgrounds and perspectives—not just by those who represent predominately white, privileged, Western viewpoints.

Fortunately, case studies can be developed far more quickly than textbooks or even mass market book titles. Their short format means that professors can use them not only to keep content fresh and current for students, but also to better capture the shifting nature of businesses and the people who help them thrive. Cases also can show real-time examples of companies undergoing successful evolutions in their DEI initiatives, as well as companies that still have a long way to go.

By looking at business through a DEI lens, students can better see the reality of our economic landscape. They can truly connect to, and see themselves in, today’s business environment.

Building a Modern Case Collection

Our SAGE Business Cases collection is a testament to SAGE’s dedication to prioritizing cases that represent a broad and inclusive range of backgrounds and perspectives from around the world. SAGE is committed to developing cases around emerging and underserved topics that accurately reflect the diversity and shifting priorities of the global business landscape, as well as the experiences of those who work within it.

For example, in 2021 we launched a new case series called Immigrant Entrepreneurs . This groundbreaking series is edited by Bala Mulloth, an assistant professor of public policy at the University of Virginia and himself an immigrant entrepreneur. It features the stories of founders who started businesses outside their countries of origin.

While there has been a spike of interest in case studies that feature protagonists of a variety of backgrounds, we have also seen a rise of nativist politics across countries and cultures. Part of our vision for this series is to combat the damaging and false political narrative that immigrants harm economies. We want to defuse that narrative with positive and inspiring examples of the value immigrants add to communities around the world.

Our SAGE Business Cases platform enables us to quickly publish brief, news-driven cases. Faculty and students can quickly employ the offerings in our Express Case series for classroom or online discussion. Examples include:

• How Will BLM Change Corporate Activism?
• Analyzing Pfizer’s COVID-19 Vaccine PR Strategy

We also offer longer-form cases in our SAGE Originals collection, such as the following:

• Woke-Washing: The Promise and Risk of Linking Branding With Politics
• Policing the Police: Privatization as a Means of Oversight
• Organizational Responses to Athlete Activism Post-Kaepernick: An Exercise in Decision-Making
• Nike and the Balancing Act Between Social Justice and Selling Products

Tools That Reflect the Reality of Business

For its part, AACSB has shown its deep commitment to diversity and inclusion in its 2020 business accreditation standards , in which it embeds ideals related to diversity and inclusion in six out of nine standards, compared to six out of 15 in the 2013 standards. To align with this commitment, our curricular tools must reflect the varied reality of those engaged in the global business environment, no matter their locations, roles, organization types, gender, race, age, religion, sexuality, or disability status.

As educators, publishers, and business school administrators, we have a responsibility to provide all students with not only access and opportunity, but also exposure to a wide range of perspectives. By exposing them to the true, diverse nature of business, we can prepare them for the world today and enable them to change it for the better.

• Learning Delivery

Training Industry

How indeed achieved greater inclusion, roi with dei training: a case study.

There’s no arguing that a positive, healthy mindset of inclusion and belonging makes us better humans. There’s also no arguing that this inclusivity drives the type of sociological equity that makes the world a better place. The part that may still be debated in the dark, quiet corners of some corporate boardrooms is how much impact a great diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging (DEIB) initiative can have on the business’ bottom line. After all, most learning and development (L&D) organizations don’t offer much evidence that their training programs are “working,” and even fewer up-level that evidence to business impact and return on investment (ROI).

That said, business partners who spend budgets on training don’t like being in the dark!  They’ve never been hungrier for some hard data showing how their DEIB initiatives can change behaviors on the job, drive higher levels of performance, and ultimately achieve a positive ROI.  So, here’s a real-world research study hot off the presses to shine a little light into those dark corners.

A Case Study at Indeed

Indeed is the No. 1 job site in the world¹, with over 300 million unique visitors every month.

In 2022, their forward-thinking employee development and DEIB+ Learning teams joined forces to equip Indeed managers with the skills and tools required to lead more inclusively.

To do this they partnered with a live, online training provider to create a customized, best-in-class DIEB+ training experience and launched a live learning program titled “The Inclusive Manager.” The program was a unique blend of classes designed to support managers to develop and implement key behaviors of inclusion such as building trust, addressing microaggressions , embracing diversity and creating a culture of belonging. In each session, managers were challenged to commit to making one small change to their work practice based on what they learned. This commitment was then tracked and revisited during the following session.

What We Measured

In 2022, a study was conducted using a sample of 146 managers to quantify how the application of skills and techniques taught in the program could promote key inclusive behaviors on the job and drive higher performance, as well as other key outcomes for the business. To measure the impact of the program, a six-level evaluation strategy was employed.

What We Found

Levels 1 and 2.

Class ratings on engagement and value were aggregated post-program with an overall average score of 4.8 out of 5. New learning was also assessed post program , and 95% of participants gained new and valuable knowledge about inclusion that was relevant to their role.

Participants’ improvements on specific inclusive behaviors were assessed 60+ days after training. The behavioral outcomes were reported on a five-point scale ranging from “no improvement” to “exceptional improvement”.

Key findings included:

• 100% of participants showed improvement in building higher trust relationships with their direct reports, with 52% showing significant to exceptional improvement.
• 100% of participants showed improvement in behaviors that created a heightened sense of belonging within their teams, with 48% showing significant to exceptional improvement.
• 95% of participants were more likely to recommend Indeed as an inclusive place to work.
• 90% of participants reported that their direct reports were voicing more of their ideas and opinions.

To measure impact to the business, we took a two-pronged approach:

• Human resources (HR) metrics : How did the learning impact key HR metrics like retention and promotion? To measure and isolate the training effect on retention, we used a control-group analysis that compared the turnover rate (%) of our 146 trained participants to a twin sample of un-trained managers. Within 90 days post training, results showed a reduction in turnover of 2.09 managers. We could attribute this directly to training because of the control group that “controlled” for all other factors which may have affected turnover. A similar analysis using the same control group technique to isolate the effects of training on promotion resulted in 9 managers being promoted.
• Performance metrics : How did the learning impact the job performance of participants. To isolate the impact of training on performance, we asked participants to estimate their increases in productivity and contribution, and then adjusted for error by factoring in only the participants who had significant behavior change on the job at Level 3. That is, we only took the % estimates from those who transferred and applied a significant amount of the training to their jobs and assigned a 0% estimate to everyone else. This brought an original estimate of 56% for everyone to a more conservative 30%. So, our final results here showed an overall increase in productivity per participant of 30% attributable to training.

To develop our ROI, we had to take the benefits we found at Level 4 and monetize them so we can compare them to the costs of training. Here’s what we did:

• To monetize our HR metric results, we used industry research on turnover that quantifies and monetizes the cost of replacing employees based on their salary and the complexity of their role. This can typically be 50% of their salary for lower-level roles, and run as high as 200% for higher, more unique roles.  We used a very conservative one to one ratio.  As for our promotion rate gains, although positive, we did not monetize any of our findings and did not include them in our final ROI.
• To monetize our performance gains, we used an industry standard of pay for performance which translates an employee’s performance at 1 to 2.5 times their salary. That is, employees have to contribute at least the value of their salary, or it would not be profitable to employ We used the most conservative one to one ratio.

Overall, when the analyses and results of turnover and performance were monetized, we ended with a benefit of over $10,419 per participant. When we compared this to the cost of training (which we dramatically inflated by including the cost all the participants that were scheduled to take the training, not just the 146 in the study) we ended with a final ROI of 699%.

Did manager support back on the job help enhance training transfer , business impact and ROI?  To conduct this analysis, we broke our sample up into two groups: those participants who had “high” manager support and those that had “low” manager support. Here we found those who received high manager support back on the job as they applied their inclusive behaviors had 55% greater impact and ROI than those that did not have manager support.  This significant finding underscores the fact that precious training dollars can be maximized when participants return to better, more supportive post-training climates.

Here’s a snapshot of the results at all levels of impact:

Good for People, Good for Business

This case study provides our industry with some much-needed data on how DEIB training is not just the right thing to do from a people perspective, but also from a bottom-line business perspective. Companies like Indeed who are prioritizing these initiatives don’t just grow engagement, happiness, and their reputation as a great place to work, but they also grow revenue via increased productivity, and cost savings via decreased turnover. And that’s not including the abundance of other benefits at Level 3 and 4 that we didn’t seek to quantify and monetize. For instance, think about the incredible impact all these inclusive managers can have on their direct reports’ engagement, productivity and intent to stay with the company. These cascade effects could easily and exponentially increase what’s already an extraordinary ROI.

We all knew that building an inclusive culture of belonging would make employees happier. And we also knew that these happier, more productive employees would make our business partners happier. But up until now, we just didn’t have the numbers and data to show how much happier .  With more case studies like this one, to shine a light on the amazing benefits of diversity training instead of just the costs, we will indeed be able to pull even the most skeptical business partners out of the darkness, and finally give them the results they’ve been waiting for.

References:

• ¹ Comscore, Total Visits, September 2022
• #DEI training
• #measurement
• #training ROI

Dr. Paul Leone

Dr. Paul Leone is an industrial/organizational psychologist, author, and leading expert at evaluating the impact of training initiatives. He is the founder and principal consultant for MeasureUp Consulting, where he helps training organizations and internal L&D leaders tell the valuable story of how training impacts their bottom line. He is currently a senior measurement consultant at Hone. Email Paul .

Dr. Leone is the instructor for Training Industry’s  Measuring the Impact of L&D Certificate.

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The Case for Voluntary Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Training

Trainings focused on cultural awareness and skill development can empower employees to take ownership in creating a diverse and inclusive organization.

By Julie Coffman, Elyse Rosenblum, Andrea D'Arcy, and Laura Thompson Love

• August 11, 2021

The events of the past year, from the murder of George Floyd to the disproportionate impact of Covid-19 on Black and brown communities, have left many wondering how they can fight systemic racism and inequity in their own communities and workplaces. Companies have responded with official statements, pledges, and, in some cases, mandatory diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) trainings.

Written in collaboration with

Although often well-intentioned, this compulsory training can actually be counterproductive : It fails to increase diversity in management, sends the wrong message about the company’s culture, and sometimes, even increases biases or hostility.

Creating a safe, inclusive work environment that is free of harassment and microaggressions is critical to maintaining a strong business and retaining employees of color. Voluntary DEI training, rather than mandatory programming, can be a more effective tool in helping employees improve their understanding and skills, no matter their starting point.

Voluntary diversity training can take many forms. In our experience, focusing the content of voluntary trainings on history, facts, and tangible actions is the most productive form. Trainings should include education on the causes and effects of systemic racism and other types of discrimination, how to identify and mitigate them in the workplace, and how intentionally inclusive employment practices and workplace behaviors can help to reverse them.

10 Proven Actions to Advance Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Our research finds evidence that 10 specific tactics—some common, others underused—are particularly effective at advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace.

Why it works

Research shows that voluntary DEI training improves racial and ethnic representation within companies, leading to 9% to 13% increases in Black men, Hispanic men, and Asian American men and women in management after five years.

This is in contrast to mandatory training, which has been proven to backfire. Compulsory programs can have harmful effects on the retention and advancement of underrepresented groups: Five years after instituting required training, companies found there was no improvement in the proportion of white women, Black men, or Hispanic people in management. Furthermore, the share of Black women managers plummeted by 9%.

The adoption curve

Of course, every company administers federally mandated compliance training. If that is the extent of DEI education at a company, it sends a loud and clear message to employees: We only do this because we have to. And that dangerous mindset can rapidly permeate the workforce.

But executives have a clear opportunity to increase investment in voluntary, inviting, and action-oriented DEI training. Doing so quickly shifts the organization’s stance: We care about creating an inclusive culture, and we encourage all employees to take ownership of that.

How Is Your Company Doing on Its DEI Journey?

To assess your best opportunities to advance, explore this demo version of the DEI Opportunity Identifier built by Bain & Company and Grads of Life.

How VMWare took action

In 2020 , VMware invested in foundational DEI education opportunities for all employees. Course topics include inclusive leadership development, inclusive language training, and unconscious bias training. And employees are choosing to engage: Last year, more than 10,000 employees completed the unconscious bias training.

Combined with other inclusion- and equity-based efforts, trainings have helped VMware embed a commitment to an inclusive organization in its culture. VMware COO Sanjay Poonen says that the company is “committed to having 50% of our managers be women” and that it wants to “hire one woman for every one male … and really see a more diverse workforce with underrepresented minorities and women.” And the company recently reported that 82.4% of US interview slates included at least one woman or underrepresented minority, advancing its diversity hiring goals.

About Grads of Life

We work with leading employers to create inclusive talent strategies that deliver both social impact and business benefits. Through our data-driven approach, we help companies understand their current positioning and create customized engagements to help them achieve their goals.

Further - Our Global Responsibility

Further is our collective ambition to create a more sustainable, equitable, and inclusive world. A journey to transform businesses and communities for the better.

Clifford, Tyler. “ VMware commits to closing workforce gender gap by 2030 .” CNBC, January 4, 2021.

Dobbin, Frank, Alexandra Kalev, and Erin Kelly. “ Diversity Management in Corporate America .” Contexts 6, no. 4 (Fall 2007): 21-27.

Dobbin, Frank and Alexandra Kalev. “ Why Diversity Programs Fail .” Harvard Business Review , July-August 2016.

McGregor, Jena. “ To improve diversity, don’t make people go to diversity training. Really .” Washington Post , July 1, 2016.

VMWare. FY21 Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Report . May 2021.

Hanleybrown, Fay, Lakshmi Iyer, Josh Kirschenbaum, Sandra Medrano, and Aaron Mihaly. “ Advancing Frontline Employees of Color .” FSG & PolicyLink. January 2020.

The 10 Most Effective DEI Actions

Express C-suite commitment and formalize accountability

Adopt a skills-first approach to talent acquisition

Diversify talent pipelines through work-based experiences

Provide family-sustaining wages and benefits

Communicate skills-based career pathways

Offer voluntary DEI training for all

Listen to and learn from experiences of employees

Invest resources in cross-training and upskilling

Create mentoring and sponsorship programs

Build a diverse supply chain

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• About the Case Studies
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• DEI Case Studies: Overview

Understanding Our Data

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DEI in Action: ‍ A Radically Human Approach to Case Studies

Curious about what’s happened since the moment in time of the cases? Watch our webinars with leaders from each organization and the co-authors of the cases as we discuss in more detail. ‍ Watch webinar recordings: TNTP: Facing Difficult Conversations College Track: Moving Beyond Diversity to Inclusion Blue Engine: The Challenge of Living Out Values

You’ve probably seen those case studies — the ones that all too often gloss over thorny, multidimensional challenges and deeply human imperfections for the sake of a neat narrative or sales pitch. 

These are not the case studies you’re used to.

Since the release of Unrealized Impact — Promise54’s first-of-its-kind, rigorous effort to quantify the state of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the field — we’ve received many requests for narratives sharing organizations’ actual DEI journeys. In response, we’ve decided to write a series of in-depth case studies that reflect the messy reality of the work to create thriving environments for adults so they can do their best work on behalf of students, families, and communities. 

We’ve endeavored to create a radically human alternative to the run-of-the-mill case study. Based on hours of interviews and analyses of artifacts, staff experience survey data, and DEI plans, we strove to honestly represent the journey of each organization featured — including progress made, comparisons to sector benchmarks, missteps along the way, and the challenges that these organizations are still grappling with today.

We also recognize that the stories we share are not fully representative of the wide range of perspectives and experiences that exist within these organizations. Bias is inherent in any research endeavor, and we acknowledge that there are likely biases into ours as well as the perspectives of the “storytellers” in each organization.

This honest and radically human representation requires an immense amount of vulnerability and bravery from the participating organizations, their staff, and leadership. They have invited us into not only their moments of success but also their messiest, most difficult moments - and we are profoundly appreciative for that. 

The organizations you’ll read about here are not groups who have “arrived,” and we’re not holding them up as models of perfection for others to emulate - either in process or outcomes. We believe perfection is an impossibility — and the focus on it is often a manifestation of white-dominant culture in our organizations. Instead, we embrace the imperfect work of these featured organizations as an opportunity to learn, surface discussion questions and considerations, to ultimately help drive forward progress on DEI in our own organizations and in the field collectively. 

What’s more, DEI work simply can’t be automated. There’s no universal checklist to follow — not even in these case studies — and no one-size-fits-all formula for how to get to diverse, equitable, and inclusive. Each organization’s path is highly specific to its own culture, beliefs, and challenges. DEI work within organizations is a winding process that requires maintenance, patience, and tailoring.

That’s why we’re shining a spotlight on organizations of different sizes, types, and geographies, and at different points in their journey. The first three featured organizations in this series model courage, candor, and vulnerability by baring their often uncomfortable truths. And therein lies the essence of the work itself.

How do we measure, compare, and classify organizations on diversity, inclusion, and equity?

Throughout the case studies, you will see references to Promise54’s DEI surveys, our aggregate field-level DEI data, and our “ Unrealized Impact ” report. Here’s a bit more information on how we use those tools to help organizations measure, benchmark, and classify DEI efforts.

In spite of a desire to drive progress related to diversity, inclusion, and equity, we see many organizational leaders struggle to measure and monitor their efforts over time. In our Promise54 DEI surveys and associated reports, we offer a solution: Diversity, Inclusion, and Equity Indices. These indices offer an aggregate look across a battery of questions on staff perspectives for each distinct DEI concept. Many organizations find the Diversity Index,  Equity Index, and Inclusion Index to be powerful metrics to watch as they seek to monitor the effectiveness of their DEI work over time while using our more detailed reporting on each index to inform their plans for the future.

While each organization’s DEI journey is distinct, leaders and staff alike can find it informative to understand how their organization’s current state compares to those of their peers. Therefore, we continue to collect and report on aggregate field-level DEI data over time. Our repository of DEI data is always growing, but at the time of these case studies, our benchmarks include over 20,000 respondents across over 400 organizations, largely in the field of education. Our benchmarks span all 50 states of the U.S. and the District of Columbia, include organization sizes from no full-time staff to several thousand, and represent various types of education organizations.

See some of our most updated national data here!

As we looked across all three dimensions of diversity, inclusion, and equity for organizations that have participated in the Promise54 Staff Experience DEI Survey, we noted substantial similarities among clusters of organizations (as illustrated in the scatterplot below):

Based on these common characteristics, we created Organizational Profiles to describe organizations in a similar place in relation to DEI. Leaders often find Organizational Profiles useful to contextualize their experiences and to get a sense, across all three dimensions, of their organization’s past, present, and future state.

In brief, the Organizational Profiles based on Promise54 DEI Staff Experience Survey data are:

Profile: Early Stage Organization

Early Stage organizations typically have relatively:

• Low staff and leadership demographic diversity
• Low staff experiences of inclusion
• Low staff experiences of equity
• High reports of bias being witnessed and experienced
• Low Net Promoter Scores
• Low staff intent to stay

Our data indicates that this pattern could be driven by a couple of conditions (or a combination of them): 1) good intentions coupled with low or inconsistent prioritization of DEI efforts, 2) a need for a clear articulation of the link between DEI and the organization’s mission, and 3) an understanding of which DEI-related strategies will prove to be high leverage within the organizational context.

Profile: Diversified Organization

Diversified organizations typically have relatively:

• High staff and leadership demographic diversity

Our data indicates that this pattern could be driven by an expectation that staff and leaders of color will assimilate to preexisting culture, practices, and systems versus an organization identifying and making the necessary changes to effectively receive and support a more diverse staff so they can thrive. Alternatively, some Diversified organizations may expect, whether implicitly or explicitly, that inclusion and equity will automatically follow from diversity. The underlying assumption is that staff who “represent” the communities served will drive forward this progress, and thus they are seen as responsible for the work rather than sharing the responsibility and the burden of the work across an organization.

Profile: Kindred Organization

Kindred organizations typically have relatively:

• High staff experiences of inclusion
• High staff experiences of equity
• Low reports of bias being witnessed and experienced
• High Net Promoter Scores
• High staff intent to stay

While inclusive and equitable, these organizations are not diverse and may be experienced as inclusive or equitable because they’re homogeneous. Additionally, our data indicates that these organizations may not be generating the myriad benefits that studies demonstrate result from diversity. 

Profile: Advanced Organization

Advanced organizations typically have relatively:

Our data indicates that many Advanced organizations have organically integrated DEI into their fabric without articulating, documenting, or codifying their approaches, beliefs, or practices. This can expose these organizations to risks of not being able to sustain their strong DEI in periods of uncertainty or during substantial organizational inflection points.

When we support organizations to work on their priorities around diversity, inclusion, and equity, we encourage an intentional, inclusive process to define these critical terms in context. This is especially important because while ~50% of education organizations believe DEI is related to their vision, mission, and/or values, less than ~20% have defined the terms for their own organizational context. This can lead to substantially different ideas of what an organization is working toward, how to best get there, or what individuals can expect from their day-to-day experiences. For a set of common starting definitions applicable across each of our case study organizations, we use the following:

Variation; the presence of different types of people (from a wide range of identities and with different perspectives, experiences, etc.).

When we partner with organizations to support their DEI work, some of the critical considerations we surface as they work to tailor their definition of diversity are:

• Whether they’re intentionally placing a disproportionate emphasis on race and ethnicity in defining diversity, and why they would or would not do so;
• Whether they are intentionally focusing on any other aspects of diversity, and why or why not; and
• What the ideal demographic makeup of their staff would be if they thought about their staff representation goals from a diversity standpoint.

Embracing diversity by creating an environment of involvement, respect, and connection — where the richness of ideas, backgrounds, and perspectives is harnessed to create value.

When we partner with organizations to support their DEI work, some of the critical considerations we surface as they tailor their definition of inclusion are:

• What indicators various identity groups may experience today related to sense of belonging, connectedness, agency, voice, and psychological safety as well as whether, how, and why those indicators differ by identity groups; and
• Whether and how those varied experiences need to change in the future.

Ensuring equally high outcomes for all and removing the predictability of success or failure that currently correlates with any identity marker. 

When we partner with organizations to support their DEI work, some of the critical considerations we surface as they tailor their definition of equity are:

• The distinction between equity and equality. Equity ensures that everyone has what they need to be successful, taking into account different starting points and institutionalized biases. Equality means everyone receives the same resources and support, no matter their starting point. While equality may aim to promote fairness, it assumes that everyone starts from the same place and faces the same institutional barriers along the way toward outcomes; and
• To what degree the organization intends to focus on liberation (freeing ourselves and those whom we aim to serve from the oppressive structures around us) versus equity (supporting those whom we aim to serve to be successful within oppressive structures) and how those answers should impact an organization’s specific definition of equity.

Net Promoter Score

We created a promoter index comprised of a high score on intent to stay and/or willingness to recommend the organization to a friend.

Intent to Stay

This measure in our Staff Experience Survey looks at a staff member’s self-reported likelihood of working in the same organization in three years. 

White Dominant Culture

Culture refers to the norms, values, beliefs, ways of thinking, behaving, and decision-making within a group - or in this case within an organization. White-dominant culture norms (defined by Kenneth Jones and Dr. Tema Okun ) “are damaging because they are used as norms and standards without being pro-actively named or chosen by the group. They are damaging because they promote white supremacy thinking. They are damaging to both people of color and to white people. Organizations that are people of color led or a majority people of color can also demonstrate many damaging characteristics of white supremacy culture.” 

Kenneth Jones and Dr. Tema Okun defined white-dominant culture norms as listed below. 

Psychological Safety

A concept coined by Amy Edmondson which refers to a shared belief held by members of a team that “the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking - a belief that one will not be punished or humiliated for speaking up with ideas, questions, concerns, or mistakes.”

In a team with high psychological safety, individuals feel safe taking risks around other team members and/or supervisors. Psychological safety facilitates continuous learning in organizations because it alleviates concern about how others will react to actions or behaviors that could have the potential for threat or embarrassment. Psychological safety is critical to DEI work because it supports and enables vulnerability, learning, growth, and behavior change.

Acknowledgements

Promise54 is deeply grateful to the leaders and staff of College Track, TNTP, and Blue Engine for their candor and their courage to vulnerably share their experiences working toward diversity, inclusion, and equity. In particular, we want to thank Elissa Salas, Julia Chih, Tonya Horton, Tequilla Brownie, Tamecca Chester, Leticia De La Vara, Anne Eidelman, and Elandria Jackson. Further we’d like to thank Lyle Hurst and Leslye Louie for data support, Heather Buchheim for writing, Amy Blizzard-Brown for research, Varona Productions for video production, Giant Rabbit for web build and support, and VBG Solutions for pdf design and build. Finally, we appreciate the thoughtful feedback and thought-partnership provided by Rebecca Crowe, Kaya Henderson, Chris Gibbons, Jonas Chartock, Frances Messano, and Idrissa Simmonds-Nastili. ‍ We also want to thank the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, especially the contributions of program officers Katherine Martin and Rachel Leifer, and the Walton Family Foundation for supporting this critical work.

Promise54 ’s  mission is to help adults thrive so they can better serve students, families, and communities. We envision a day when organizations committed to educational equity can have maximum impact because they have:

• The right people excelling in the right roles;
• Teams that include perspectives, identities, and experiences of the communities served;
• Cultures of belonging, trust, and connection; and  
• Equitable internal structures, systems, and behaviors.

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Reviewing Diversity Training: Where We Have Been and Where We Should Go

• Katerina Bezrukova
• Karen A. Jehn
• Chester S. Spell

Santa Clara UniversityMelbourne Business SchoolRutgers University

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We review and critically examine 178 articles whose authors have investigated numerous aspects of diversity training programs on campuses and in the workplace. We first examine the characteristics of the research, including sample, study method, and theoretical framework. Consistent with the training framework of Baldwin and Ford (1988) and Blume and colleagues (2010) , we then organize the articles by the context of training, training design, trainees' characteristics, and training outputs. Although we found a myriad of different forms, shapes, and combinations of diversity training in terms of its design elements, some programs (e.g., integrated training) were relatively rare, yet authors viewed them more positively than other programs (e.g., stand-alone training). We discuss gaps in the literature and provide suggestions for future research on diversity training.

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Diversity matters even more: The case for holistic impact

Diversity Matters Even More

Diversity Matters Even More is the fourth report in a McKinsey series investigating the business case for diversity, following Why Diversity Matters (2015), Delivering Through Diversity (2018), and Diversity Wins (2020). For almost a decade through our Diversity Matters series of reports, McKinsey has delivered a comprehensive global perspective on the relationship between leadership diversity and company performance. This year, the business case is the strongest it has been since we’ve been tracking and, for the first time in some areas, equitable representation is in sight. Further, a striking new finding is that leadership diversity is also convincingly associated with holistic growth ambitions, greater social impact, and more satisfied workforces.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Dame Vivian Hunt, representing views from UnitedHealth Group, and Sundiatu Dixon-Fyle , Celia Huber , María del Mar Martínez Márquez , Sara Prince , and Ashley Thomas , representing views from McKinsey.

At a time when companies are under extraordinary pressure to maintain financial performance while navigating a rapidly changing business landscape, creating an internal culture of transparency and inclusion, and transforming operations to meet social-impact expectations, the good news is that these goals are not mutually exclusive. On the contrary, our research suggests a strong, positive relationship between them. And in an increasingly complex and uncertain competitive landscape, diversity matters even more .

For this report, the fourth edition of Diversity Matters , we drew on our largest dataset yet—spanning 1,265 companies, 23 countries, and six global regions, and multiple company interviews. We also extended our research and interview focus beyond the relationship between diversity and financial performance, for the first time exploring the holistic impact  of diversity on communities, workforces, and the environment.

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The most compelling business case yet

There have been far-reaching changes in the business environment over the past few years, yet, companies with diverse leadership teams continue to be associated with higher financial returns. Our expanded dataset shows this is true across industries and regions, despite differing challenges, stakeholder expectations, and ambitions.

The business case for gender diversity on executive teams 1 The business case is the percent difference in likelihood of outperformance between companies in the top and bottom quartile for a characteristic. Outperformance is calculated as the likelihood to place above the median profitability of other companies in the same industry and region. For more information on our calculation of the likelihood of outperformance analysis, see “Methodology for financial performance.” has more than doubled over the past decade. Each of our reports—2015, 2018, 2020, and now 2023—has found a steady upward trend, tracking ever greater representation of women on executive teams. At each time point we have assessed the data, the likelihood of financial outperformance gap has grown: Our 2015 report found top-quartile companies had a 15 percent greater likelihood of financial outperformance versus their bottom-quartile peers; this year, that figure hits 39 percent (Exhibit 1).

A strong business case for ethnic diversity is also consistent over time, with a 39 percent increased likelihood of outperformance for those in the top quartile of ethnic representation versus the bottom quartile. This has persisted even with eight new economies added in our analysis of 2022 financial data. 2 Our 2023 report draws on data that was collected in both 2021 and 2022. For this analysis, we used data collected in 2022.

The penalties 3 Rewards and penalties refer to the likelihood of outperformance, or underperformance, on profitability compared to companies in the other three quartiles. for low diversity on executive teams are also intensifying. Companies with representation of women exceeding 30 percent (and thus in the top quartile) are significantly more likely to financially outperform those with 30 percent or fewer. Similarly, companies in our top quartile for ethnic diversity show an average 27 percent financial advantage over others (Exhibit 2).

Both forms of diversity in executive teams appear to show an increased likelihood of above-average profitability. Companies in the top quartile for both gender and ethnic diversity in executive teams are on average 9 percent more likely to outperform their peers. (This gap has closed slightly since our previous report.) Meanwhile, those in the bottom quartile for both are 66 percent less likely to outperform financially on average, up from 27 percent in 2020, indicating that lack of diversity may be getting more expensive.

Our latest analysis shows that companies with greater diversity on their boards of directors are more likely to outperform financially. For the first time, this correlation is statistically significant for both gender and ethnicity. Companies in the top quartile for board-gender diversity are 27 percent more likely to outperform financially than those in the bottom quartile. Similarly, companies in the top quartile for ethnically diverse boards are 13 percent more likely to outperform than those in the bottom quartile. These findings support the hypothesis that diversity benefits extend across top corporate leadership to boards, where DEI policy decisions for the whole organization are often made. We also examined diversity in emerging and advanced economies, finding that while advanced economies see a much higher likelihood of outperformance for executive gender diversity, emerging economies have shown meaningful progress in recent years and may have the most to gain from increasing diversity.

Equitable representation at the top is within reach

Since McKinsey first started tracking data on representation in 2015, women have made substantial gains in the workplace and in leadership. The current global dataset shows that one-fifth of executive team members are women, a third higher than reported in 2020. Eight in ten surveyed companies now have at least one woman on their executive team (up from fewer than two-thirds), while seven in ten have more than 10 percent. Since 2020’s Diversity Wins  (and with an expanded dataset), we have now seen the highest increase in diversity in a decade and more representation at the highest levels than ever before (Exhibit 3).

Because each region has a unique ethnic makeup and cultural norms, we have assessed rates of ethnic representation by evaluating equitable representation levels—how closely leadership mirrors regional demographics. 4 Equitable representation refers to the level at which a leadership team's diverse representation matches the level of representation of historically underrepresented ethnicities within a given region’s population. US companies are currently the closest to representing the population at 20 percent ethnic representation, but still lag behind the population share of 41 percent.

We have continued to look at boards, given the association of diverse boards with better financial performance and inclusive growth 5 Companies in the top quartile of board-gender diversity are 27 percent more likely than those in the bottom quartile to outperform financially, and companies in the top quartile for ethnically diverse boards are 13 percent more likely to outperform than those in the bottom quartile. We tested a variety of inclusive growth metrics, including social and environmental impact. For every woman added to a company board with ten directors, there was on average a two-point increase in holistic impact scores. Additional detail located in “Diversity supports inclusive growth” section. ; even more than executive teams, they can also be a strong positive influence on the societal disposition of a company. This year we once again found that financial impact is linked to increased representation of women on boards. For the first time, we also see a significant association with ethnic representation.

Over the past eight years, we have tracked over 330 companies’ progress on representation and diversity in leadership, and segmented these companies into five cohorts based on both 2015 levels of executive-team diversity and progress since then: Diversity Leaders, Fast Movers, Moderate Movers, Resting on Laurels, and Laggards (Exhibit 4).

It has been particularly inspiring to find that Diversity Leaders have attained gender parity and equitable ethnic representation, showing that equitable representation at the top is not just a lofty dream but a realistic goal. Further, our Fast Movers demonstrate that change can happen at speed and scale, with gender representation reaching 32 percent—the first time we’ve seen such a promising outcome in this cohort. These companies have raised the bar to keep pace with the changing landscape of diversity representation in leadership. Their strong performance prompted us to raise the improvement thresholds for companies from our 2020 Diversity Wins  report to reflect the gains seen in top-performing quartiles (five percentage points for gender and ten percentage points for ethnicity).

Companies in our top cohorts have shown rapid, groundbreaking growth in representation, with some even attaining gender parity. In fact, diversity-leading companies in the United Kingdom have reached an ethnic-representation average, at 28 percent, that exceeds the region’s general population. Diversity-leading US companies have reached 50 percent representation of women on executive teams. In addition, leading companies in the United States now have on average 39 percent of executives from historically underrepresented ethnicities.

Considering the dataset as a whole, however, there is still a substantial gap in ethnic representation at top levels. For companies included in both our 2020 and 2023 reports, only 16 percent of leaders on executive teams belong to historically underrepresented ethnicities. 6 Historically underrepresented group refers to populations who have historically not been represented within leadership teams at the same rate that they exist within the general population. These gains have slowed since 2019. At the time of Diversity Wins , 61 percent of companies had at least one person in leadership from a historically underrepresented group; this figure has grown only slightly (68 percent).

While there is some good news on progress in the area of equitable representation, across most geographies, significantly more work is needed. Diversity Leaders are beacons for other companies, demonstrating that scaling and institutionalizing policies that promote multiple forms of diversity can move the needle on representation.

Diversity supports inclusive growth

While year over year financial performance remains critical, businesses are increasingly aspiring to have positive, long-term impact on all stakeholders—the core tenet of stakeholder capitalism. This emphasizes the interests and needs of a wider set of stakeholders, including employees, customers, and investors, prioritizes social and environmental goals, and drives towards sustainable, inclusive growth—in short, what we refer to as holistic impact.

In many parts of the world there is a growing call for organizations to consider their holistic impact, not only within their own business environment, but on a wider scale, both locally and globally. Our research points to five main areas of holistic impact : financial and operational, capabilities, health and workforce, and environmental and social. In this report, we broaden the lens of our research, placing particular focus on environmental and social-impact elements.

Our findings are striking. Across all industries surveyed, more diversity in boards and executive teams is correlated to higher social and environmental impact scores.

We recognize that creating social impact, alongside other business priorities, is a challenging task, even for companies who have strong intentions to do so. Yet, over half of sampled companies in our dataset perform well in community involvement. 7 Defined as scoring above 75 on the community measure. We find that diverse leadership teams could help to bolster community involvement, positively impacting ethical disposition, community orientation, and the general image of a company.

We examined how leadership diversity could be linked to three components of holistic impact—community, workforce, and environment—which all have particularly close connections with employee and community well-being. The results were pronounced: across all three components, we found positive correlations with gender and ethnic leadership diversity (Exhibit 5).

We also found a link between greater diversity in leadership roles and diversity across the organization. 8 Organization-wide and management diversity is a workforce submetric score within the social pillar. These data points were then compared against our dataset for executive teams. For a 10 percent rise in women’s executive representation in our 2019 dataset, we see on average a 2.1 increase in the percentage of both women employees and women managers in 2021. A similar, if somewhat smaller, effect holds with ethnic representation. 9 We recognize that there is, naturally, a degree of overlap in these scores. When there is a path for women and ethnic minorities to step into the highest roles, it suggests that there are inclusive practices at play, making it possible for all to succeed.

Overall, there is a strong correlation between diversity in influential company leadership roles and multiple indicators of holistic impact across workforce, community, and environmental components. These relationships hold across sectors.

Five levers for change

The last decade has been a period of notable progress on equitable representation in leadership. Yet representation alone is an insufficient and unsustainable outcome. Since Why Diversity Matters in 2015, our thinking has evolved with continued engagement in this field. From our initial focus on diverse representation in leadership, we added a perspective on the practical steps companies can take to increase leadership diversity. From there, we broadened our focus to highlight the importance of inclusion and equity.

Now, we are beginning to distill the essence of holistic impact, and the role that leaders play in cultivating visionary workplaces. By building inclusive and supportive workplace cultures where diverse leaders and allies are truly heard, companies can chart a path towards impact beyond financial performance.

Leveraging our company interviews as a valuable source of refreshed insight, our data shows that the more diverse the leadership team, the more likely they are to have made public, mature commitments to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in their decision-making strategies. Transforming this commitment into bold action is the natural next step. To facilitate this transformation, we conducted interviews with diversity leaders who shared invaluable insights. These interviews surfaced five strategies to effectively turn words into action:

• Commit to a systematic, purpose-led approach to benefit all stakeholders. Companies should frame and pursue their DEI aspirations—internally and publicly—as core to their mission and embedded into their strategic goals. Having diverse perspectives and backgrounds may be uniquely helpful, as suggested by the relationship between ethnic and gender diversity and companies’ inclusive-growth performance.
• Embed your strategy in company-wide business initiatives while tailoring to local context. While DEI strategy is typically shaped at the top, giving local teams license to tailor to local contexts is key to building ownership and local impact. Agilely launching test and learn cycles for DEI initiatives in specific localities before rolling them out corporate-wide can also support larger DEI goals. In crafting a “global-local” approach to establishing their DEI strategy and values, leaders should build open lines of communication to develop a deep understanding of their workforce, community, and customers. This ensures DEI moves from abstract ideals to concrete actions. 10 Ella Washington, “The five stages of DEI maturity,” Harvard Business Review , November 1, 2022.
• Prioritize belonging and inclusive practices to unlock performance. Diverse representation will have the most impact within a culture that fosters inclusion and belonging—which also facilitates retaining diverse talent, innovation, and customer centricity. This support should include making inclusive leadership the norm through management training and accountability, as well as providing high-impact support to affinity and Employee Resources Groups (ERGs) to boost employee satisfaction.
• Embolden and activate champions and allies by providing adequate resources and support. DEI efforts of individual leaders, particularly women, are often less high-profile or officially rewarded, including their contributions to inclusive leadership, allyship, and employee well-being. Companies that recognize these efforts and provide a supportive environment can help these leaders thrive. This support could include mentorship and sponsorship, as well as encouraging and celebrating allyship. Leaders could be measured on their contributions to DEI and employee wellness in their performance evaluations.
• Act on feedback, including dissenting voices. A culture of feedback on DEI strategy from the workforce and wider stakeholders can provide valuable insights, identifying both strengths and opportunities for change. Leaders can use routine company pulse surveys to collect feedback internally, and social listening externally. It is important for dissenting voices to also be heard to pinpoint root causes of any roadblocks and contribute towards optimizing impact of the DEI strategy.

Despite a challenging business environment, the business case for diverse leadership teams is clear and growing stronger. In this report, our findings also show a statistically significant link between diverse boards and executive teams and higher holistic-impact scores, including on environmental and social measures.

To achieve lasting impact along these dimensions, companies must move boldly beyond increasing diverse representation to integrating DEI in a purpose-driven approach, broadening the company’s positive impact across stakeholders, employees, the external community, and the environment.

Sundiatu Dixon-Fyle is a senior fellow in McKinsey’s London office; Celia Huber is a senior partner in the Bay Area office; María del Mar Martínez Márquez is a senior partner in the Madrid office; and Sara Prince is a senior partner in the Atlanta office, where Ashley Thomas is a client delivery director. Dame Vivian Hunt is the chief innovation officer at UnitedHealth Group and a McKinsey alumna.

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Diversity And Inclusion: Best Practices And Case Studies

• September 23, 2020

A  company culture where employee s  feel empowered to use their voice is the  most  crucial  talent imperative  facing workforce planners  today .  A   Gallup  poll  revealed that only 55% of  US workers feel that their organization prioritizes Diversity & Inclusion (D&I)  policies.   

This low figure is especially worrying when contrasted with the  percentage of new-age workers (64%) for whom diversity is a crucial factor before accepting a job offer.   

Achieving diversity in the workplace is not just a n  ethical me tric that needs to be ticked off to placate stakeholders. It is also a fiscally important metric.   Companies in  the top quartile for ethnic and cultural diversity   experience ~40% more profitability than those in the bottom fourth quartile.   

We have covered these benefits in detail in our discussion on   Measures to Implement Diversity & Inclusion.  

In this post, we will focus our discussion on highlighting some  best  practices when  it  comes to implementing D&I through some exceptional case studie s .  

Outreach Programs Should Be Your First Step  – IBM    

Nothing shows the world that  you’re  serious about your D&I program than a fully-fledged outreach program.  These outreach initiatives show that you are actively seeking to incorporate diversity into your company ethos and are willing to go the extra mile to make people feel more inclusive.   

A great example of this is IBM’s Girls’ Outreach  Program .  Started in 2008 to mitigate the  declining  pipeline  of female tech talent,  the program encourages girls to think seriously about a career in tech and business.  The highly successful program targets girls in the 15-16 years age range and offers them a chance  to shadow senior employees and gain practical experience to increase their knowledge and skills.  This has a direct correlation with the number of girls  expressing interest in taking up an apprenticeship  or participating in future placement drives.  

Since 2012, the program has shifted focus to schools with a high percentage of  Black, Asian & Minority Ethnic (BAME) students.  

Set Ambitious Goals & Achieve Them  –  Accenture  

Accenture was ranked no 1 in the Thomson Reuters’ 2018 D&I index. They were ahead of their peers by a large margin. Their secret?   

The company set a n  ambitious  challenge to achieve 50/50 gender balance by 2025  and have women comprise 25% of their managing directors by 2020.   

To achieve this, the company has  taken  several  steps ,  including:  

• Setting clear & measurable diversity targets  and publishing its workforce demographics across countries like the US, India, Japan,  & South Africa.  
• Driving initiatives that provide women with training for in-demand skills like AI, Analytics, Cloud etc.  
• Collaborating across business and government to further gender equality in the workplace.  

Suffice to say,  by  attuning  the entire organization towards achieving this goal, Accenture has completely overhauled its hiring and promotion strategies.   

Other t op IT enterprises are actively  hiring   diverse  talent across  different  sexual orientation s , ethnicit ies  & physica l disabilities as well.  

Set Up Empowerment Programs for the Marginalized – GAP  

The garment industry is notorious for exploiting cheap  labour  in third-world countries. Most of the clothes available in the Western world are often spun by underpaid ,   female  workers in  countries like Bangladesh and India.   

Launched in 2007 by apparel giant GAP,  the  Personal Advancement & Career Enhancement (PACE)  program is actively imparting women with foundational life skills, technical  training  and  support to help them advance in their professional and personal lives.  

In 2016, GAP expanded the program to include adolescent  girls as  well. As of 2020, over 500,000 women in 17 countries have undergone this life-changing program.   

Empowerment programs can even be something  like   creating health insurance coverages for transgender folks as well. Most of us take our health coverage for granted. However, traditional coverages often leave out conditions that are uni que to the transgender community. The Lalit Suri Hospitality  G roup in India has taken their inclusi vity measure to the next level by not only hiring trans individuals but also providing them coverage for Sex Affirmation surgeries in their  medi -claim.   

Best Practices  To  Ensure D&I  

While the above case studies have been eye-opening  in regards to  how far some companies are willing to go to create an inclusive atmosphere, they are simply not practical for enterprises operating  at a smaller scale.   

Draup has curated the following list of best practices to help workforce planners  ensure that the workplace does not leave a  particular community  behind.   

• First & foremost, perform a thorough  audit of your existing diversity scenario.  The first step to solving a problem is acknowledging it.  
• Ensure that everyone, from the janitor to the CEO, is  committed to upholding diversity values.  This  has to  be ensured right at the onboarding process itself.   
• Opt  for transparency wherever possible.  It’s  one thing to boldly proclaim that you are inclusive, and another to publicly display the numbers to back your claim. This diversity dashboard  should be accessible at all times  and visible to every stakeholder.  
• Develop a D&I roadmap.  This could be something as simple as committing to hire women to a certain percentage of leadership roles or even something as like  committing to create safe spaces & environments for minorities to air their grievances.  
• Monitor & report on progress.  Ideally, every  company  wo uld have a Chief Diversity Officer to take care of this. If not, there should be a SPOC for all diversity-related matters.  

You can also make use of third-party consultants or tools like  Draup’s  Diversity Navigator to help your enterprise achieve its diversity goals.   

Using the Diversity Navigator, you can recruit candidates with queries such as  “female data analyst in the  B ay  A rea”, “Black female data scientist in New York ” or “Transgender Sales Executive in  Denver.”  

The tool also features a Hiring Opportunity Index and provides a deep dive into their skill sets while also ranking them in  terms of New-Age skills set.  

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Best practice case study project

We are promoting and showcasing the best examples in recruitment and retention where initiatives and schemes have successfully improved the diversity of the workforce, in particular the representation of women, disabled people and those from minority ethnic backgrounds.

Our best practice case studies include case studies from Atkins, BAE Systems, B-MEntor, BT, Caterpillar, the Department of Health, FDM, IBM, Jaguar Land Rover and Microsoft; as well as North Energy Associates. The next call for submissions will open in Autumn 2015.

Atkins “Atkins’ endeavours have demonstrated that we are prepared to push ahead and offer something new to prospective employees, which should stand us out from our competitors.”  Read the case study (PDF)

BAE Systems “At BAE Systems we value diversity because it benefits our people and helps our business grow. There are many ways in which we are supporting a more diverse and inclusive environment, and one such opportunity we saw was to create an additional route into our summer internship programme for individuals who are female and/or from a Black, Asian or minority ethnic group.” Read the case study (PDF)

B-MEntor B-MEntor is a cross-institutional mentoring scheme to support BME early career researchers and is run by 3 London based universities: University College London (UCL), Kings College London and Queen Mary University of London. B-MEntor was launched in 2012 and some of its aims include encouraging BME staff to take on leadership and decision-making roles and to make a positive difference to BME staff with sustainable outcomes. Read the case study (PDF)

BT “BT is very proud of its well established and diverse networks for employees. The networks create a communication channel between members and the business; create developmental opportunities for members; enhance the corporate brand and work with our Inclusion team to plan and implement our diversity and inclusion strategy” Read the case study (PDF)

Caterpillar "Caterpillar recognises that one of its key competitive edges, and therefore the reason for its success as a business, is its employees and the talent they bring to the organisation." Read the case study (PDF)

Department of Health The Department of Health (DH) currently has 11 recognised staff networks spanning most of the protected characteristics defined in the Equality Act 2010. The networks in DH cover: Disability, Race, LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender), Religion, Women, Maternity and Flexible working. DH also has a number of Staff Groups that provide targeted support to staff, such as domestic abuse, health and wellbeing and dyslexia. Read the case study (PDF) 

FDM “Only 17% of IT professionals in the UK are women; FDM is committed to addressing this imbalance!” Read the case study (PDF)

IBM –  The Girls’ Outreach Programme “Girls consistently outperform boys in IT related subjects at school yet they rarely continue with these studies or choose careers in technology. The Girls’ Outreach Programme was established to address this declining pipeline of female talent.” Read the case study (PDF)

Jaguar Land Rover “Jaguar Land Rover has created the Women in Engineering Sponsorship Scheme- a unique scheme to support the training of female engineers alongside their degree.” Read the case study (PDF)

Microsoft “Confidence is key for women progressing within IT so by bringing the components of role models, inspiration and sponsorship together we hope to create interest in women to follow a career path they might not previously had the opportunity to follow and to tap in to the huge number of women who are qualified to work in IT but have never pursued it.” Read the case study (PDF)

Individual case studies 

Charlotte Hatto –  Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Consultant and Life Cycle Assessment Practitioner, North Energy Associates “With a physics degree and research experience from UMIST, I felt that I had much to offer potential employers, but had virtually given up hope of ever finding a job to suit my lifestyle and interests.” Read the case study (PDF)

Helen Wilson – Reader in Mathematics, University College London “Since my first maternity leave I have been appointed Deputy Head of Department; since my second, things have really taken off for me and I have been appointed to a surprising number of national and international bodies. There are times when the demands of two small children and a full-time job feel too much; but my institution is really doing its best to make things work for me.” Read the case study (PDF)

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Diversity Training Goals, Limitations, and Promise: A Review of the Multidisciplinary Literature

Patricia g. devine.

1 Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA;

Tory L. Ash

2 Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, USA;

In this review, we utilize a narrative approach to synthesize the multidisciplinary literature on diversity training. In examining hundreds of articles on the topic, we discovered that the literature is amorphous and complex and does not allow us to reach decisive conclusions regarding best practices in diversity training. We note that scholars of diversity training, when testing the efficacy of their approaches, too often use proxy measures for success that are far removed from the types of consequential outcomes that reflect the purported goals of such trainings. We suggest that the enthusiasm for, and monetary investment in, diversity training has outpaced the available evidence that such programs are effective in achieving their goals. We recommend that researchers and practitioners work together for future investigations to propel the science of diversity training forward. We conclude with a roadmap for how to create a more rigorous and relevant science of diversity training.

INTRODUCTION

Public discourse and popular media are flooded with stories of companies implementing diversity training (DT) in response to highly publicized, and often reputation damaging, instances of bias. In a particularly salient case, Starbucks closed all 175,000 stores to host a four-hour antibias training following the controversial arrest of two Black patrons purportedly loitering while waiting for an associate to arrive ( Stewart 2018 ). In response to the outrage following the expulsion of Black passengers for allegedly laughing too loudly on the Napa Valley Train, the CEO of the company publicly promised to provide DT for all his employees ( Bhattacharjee 2016 ). In another example, Delta Air Lines offered unconscious bias training for all 23,000 flight attendants after a Black physician’s credentials were questioned when she attempted to provide emergency medical care to a fellow passenger ( Crespo 2018 ). Although the public is all too familiar with promises of reform via employee DT, much less attention is paid to the content, objectives, and effectiveness of DT. Specifically, what are the goals of DT? What should be included in DT? How would an interested consumer recognize an effective DT program? And is DT effective in reducing bias, or is it rife with empty promises?

Many scholars and laypeople alike argue that DT may be effective across a variety of contexts for reducing intergroup anxiety, preventing discrimination, and ultimately, promoting social justice. We find the hunger for knowledge regarding what practitioners can do to create more inclusive environments encouraging, as motivation to address bias is the necessary first step to achieving greater equity ( Devine 1989 ). However, the well-intentioned, yet uninformed, consumer may quickly become overwhelmed by the breadth of DT programs currently available. DT programs go by many names and range from diversity and inclusion certification programs at accredited universities to bias training via online modules and consultation services from diversity, equity, and inclusion experts. Although many programs boast endorsements from well-known companies that vouch for the efficacy of their services, their websites provide little evidence supporting the effectiveness of their programs. Despite stylish web pages featuring photos of diverse work teams, lofty promises, and persuasive customer testimonials, there is a lack of information about the particular content, techniques, and evidentiary basis underlying the application of each training. Moreover, diligent browsers are often frustrated in their efforts because many websites prohibit prospective clients from gaining more information without signing up for a listserv, consultation, or free trial.

Despite the abundance of DT programs available to purchase by the public, the practice of offering DT has gotten too far ahead of the evidence suggesting they are helpful (e.g., Green & Hagiwara 2020 , Moss-Racusin et al. 2014 , Paluck et al. 2020 ). Furthermore, some scholars explicitly question the ethics of implementing such trainings without evidence of their efficacy ( Paluck 2012 ). Others have sounded the alarm that such trainings may even be counterproductive and may be associated with a decrease in the representation of employees from historically marginalized groups ( Dobbin & Kalev 2016 , Dover et al. 2020 ).

This review summarizes the goals, content, and efficacy of DT across a variety of disciplines and settings. In light of the boom in DT and in response to calls for a more rigorous evaluation of the efficacy of DT programs ( Paluck 2012 , Paluck & Green 2009 ), this review focuses on the extent to which the science of DT has gained traction in establishing the efficacy of DT programs. And if not, where do we go from here?

Given that others have noted that “diversity training” can be considered a catch-all term (e.g., Paluck 2006 ), we cast a wide net in performing our literature search on DT. Articles included in our review evaluated DT programs targeted to address outcomes relevant to institutionalized settings. All of the studies reviewed share an emphasis on relevant samples (i.e., nurses, teachers, employees), field settings (i.e., classroom, workplace, professional conference), and training programs (rather than brief lab-based manipulations). This review is distinct in highlighting DT, specifically, and it departs from previous reviews that examine the effects of contact ( Pettigrew & Tropp 2006 ) or the broad array of prejudice reduction manipulations designed to enhance intergroup relations ( Paluck et al. 2020 ).

We used a variety of search terms and did not restrict our search to any particular field or set of journals. Search terms included: diversity training, bias/prejudice reduction interventions, antibias training, diversity education, cultural competence, bias literacy, multicultural education, ethnic studies, implicit/unconscious bias training, and racial sensitivity training. We limited our search to articles that were peer-reviewed, had adult samples, and were published during or after the year 2000. Although DT for children and adolescents is a growing topic of inquiry, this body of literature involves considerations (e.g., the developmental appropriateness of the program’s content) that fall outside the scope of this review. We restricted our database to articles published after the year 2000 for two reasons. First, that year largely marks the beginning of the big business boom of DT as a for-profit and pervasive industry ( Paluck 2006 ). Second, comprehensive reviews of the DT literature prior to 2000 already exist (e.g., Bezrukova et al. 2016 , Paluck & Green 2009 ). Our goal was to evaluate the extent to which the more recent science of DT has progressed to the point of offering clear guidelines regarding best DT practices.

Our literature search began in June of 2019 and continued until the end of 2020. In total, we collected 250 articles, which were then coded across 35 different criteria. The majority of the coding was conducted by the second author; all other coding was conducted by trained research assistants and checked by the second author. To obtain interrater reliability, two coders independently reviewed all of the articles and coded for 6 of the 35 variables, for a total of approximately 15% of the data. These 6 variables correspond to the findings reported throughout our review; interrater reliability was satisfactory (97.60% agreement).

Variables of interest were selected as being likely important for evaluating the effectiveness of DT based on prior literature reviews and meta-analyses (e.g., Bezrukova et al. 2016 , Paluck & Green 2009 , Pettigrew & Tropp 2006 ). We distinguished articles based on their setting, purpose, kind of training, and duration. To account for the scientific rigor of articles, we coded for the research design utilized, the sample selection and size, whether outcomes were self-reported or behavioral, and whether assessments were immediate or delayed. Throughout, we highlight the variables that are most germane for our review; however, readers interested in learning more about the other variables can do so on our page on the Open Science Framework website ( https://osf.io/p7sxr/ ).

Our review includes studies that were conducted in one of three settings—organizational, human services, and education—each with its own definition of DT and specific goals that the DT is meant to address. Studies conducted in organizational settings concerned diversity initiatives for employees in workplace settings. Articles within the subfield of human services discussed training for service providers (e.g., doctors, mental health professionals, and teachers) to promote equitable care. And studies positioned in educational settings evaluated the efficacy of diversity-related curricula directed at a general student audience.

Each of these subfields has an extensive DT literature, and evaluating them separately allows for an analysis of the unique strengths and shortcomings of the research in each context. In organizing our review around these subfields, we depart from prior meta-analyses that include DT but do not make such distinctions (e.g., Bezrukova et al. 2016 , Paluck & Green 2009 , Paluck et al. 2020 ). Evaluating whether DT is effective requires considering the specific goals that motivate the implementation of particular trainings. Trainings implemented to increase minority representation in a workplace, for example, have different objectives, targeted outcomes, and content compared to a training aimed at reducing patient treatment discrepancies in health care settings. As such, making direct comparisons across subfields is challenging, and inferences regarding DT made in one discipline may or may not generalize to another subfield.

Due to the disparate methodologies and wide-ranging practices encompassed by the cross-disciplinary term “diversity training,” we used a narrative approach in summarizing the literature. Within each discipline we identify the goals and approach of DT for that field, the most common methods used, the outcomes assessed, and the state of the evidence regarding the efficacy of DT. We then offer a critique of the work and some field-specific recommendations for advancing the science of DT. We conclude each section with a table summarizing the work done in that particular field and our field-specific recommendations.

DIVERSITY TRAINING FOR EMPLOYEES IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS

We begin our summary of DT with studies positioned in workplace or organizational settings. Within the United States, employee DT was born in response to the advent of affirmative action policies implemented in US workplaces following the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. During this time, DT was simply used to inform employees of antidiscrimination laws and to assimilate women and people of color into workplace culture. Today, many motivations likely underlie companies’ utilization of DT, such as the promotion of a diverse workforce, the provision of effective communication with a diverse customer base, the avoidance of workplace discrimination, and the cultivation of creative problem solving. Irrespective of motivation, as demographics continue to shift, corporations are tasked with creating increasingly multicultural, multiracial, and multigendered workplace communities. As a result, DT has become a big and booming industry. Undeniably, DT sells, and it sells well; by one estimate, companies invest $8 billion in DT each year ( Lipman 2018 ). Currently, more than half of mid-sized and large US companies offer some form of DT ( Dobbin & Kalev 2016 ). What is unknown, at this point, is whether the returns, in terms of benefits, warrant the huge investments in DT.

Goals and Approach

The goals for organizational DT include the “full integration of members of minority social categories into the social, structural, and power relationships of an organization or institution” ( Brewer et al. 1999 , p. 337). These goals encompass the recruitment and retention of employees from underrepresented backgrounds as well as increased group cohesion, creativity, and equity within a given workplace. Stated simply, organizational DT has the overarching goal of fostering an inclusive company climate ( Bezrukova et al. 2016 ). Therefore, our review of the literature evaluated questions such as, Does DT lead to increased feelings of belonging among members of historically marginalized groups? Does representation of members of historically marginalized groups improve following DT, and is this increase maintained over time? Do employees from both historically advantaged and disadvantaged groups who undergo DT report more inclusive work climates, compared to employees from organizations that do not offer DT?

Articles are included in this section if they discuss topics or use samples characteristic of organizational settings. For example, Combs & Luthans (2007) studied participants from a government agency, insurance company, and manufacturing firm. Others investigated government contract trainees ( Rehg et al. 2012 ), managers within a government agency ( Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ), and even taxicab drivers ( Reynolds 2010 ). Many studies recruited business graduate students (e.g., Bush & Ingram 2001 , Sanchez-Burks et al. 2007 ), hospitality students ( Madera et al. 2011 ), and undergraduate students either enrolled in a workplace diversity course ( Hostager & De Meuse 2008 ) or engaged in a professional setting as research ( Roberson et al. 2009 ) or teaching ( Roberson et al. 2001 ) assistants. A sizeable portion of the articles (17.02%) examined the impact of trainings targeting gender bias in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) organizations and departments (e.g., Hennes et al. 2018 , Moss-Racusin et al. 2018 ).

Many trainings pertained to the general promotion and inclusion of marginalized groups. Others, however, were specific about the group targeted, such as women (e.g., Chang et al. 2019 , Jackson et al. 2014 ), older individuals ( Reynolds 2010 ), English language learners ( Madera et al. 2011 ), and individuals with disabilities ( Phillips et al. 2016 ).

DT within organizational settings is most commonly delivered in a lecture-based format by an outside consultant ( Paluck 2006 ). Throughout the presentation, trainers often discuss the definition, benefits, and potential challenges of workplace diversity. The presentation is typically followed by group activities, such as reviewing cases of work-based prejudice ( Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ), simulating common disabilities associated with aging ( Reynolds 2010 ), and determining whether different scenarios constitute workplace discrimination ( Preusser et al. 2011 ).

As found by prior reviews, the selection of particular DT strategies appears to be most often motivated by personal preference or intuition about what trainers believe would be effective rather than by a specific theoretical approach or empirical evidence ( Cox & Devine 2019 , Pendry et al. 2007 ). Many studies from organizational settings did not include information explaining the content of the training (e.g., Holladay & Quiñones 2008 ) or justifying the use of the strategies employed (e.g., Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ).

Research Designs and Assessment of Outcomes

Of the 47 articles that discussed DT in organizational settings, 15 articles were correlational, theoretical, or qualitative; 32 studies delivered and quantitatively evaluated a training. Researchers most often utilized single-group repeated measures designs (i.e., pre–post; 43.75%), others used group designs with random assignment (i.e., experimental; 37.50%), and a few utilized group designs without random assignment (i.e., quasi-experimental; 18.75%). 1

Most studies (62.50%) assessed trainees’ cognitive and affective responses to the DT as their primary outcome of interest. 2 Specifically, many studies’ primary outcome was employees’ self-reported learning or recalled knowledge of the material presented within the training, such as knowledge of how stereotypes may influence one’s judgments in professional settings ( Roberson et al. 2009 ), what constitutes bias ( Hennes et al. 2018 ), and knowledge of cultural differences ( Rehg et al. 2012 ). Several studies also examined trainees’ perceptions of the training itself (e.g., liking, interest) through a program evaluation survey (e.g., Reynolds 2010 , Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ). Other studies examined participants’ attitudes following DT, such as supportive attitudes toward women in the workplace (e.g., Chang et al. 2019 ), attitudes toward LGBTQ+ employees (e.g., Hood et al. 2001 ), and attitudes toward non-English speakers ( Madera et al. 2011 ).

Although most studies focused on trainees’ self-reported outcomes, some studies (28.13%) did not. Instead, these studies examined how the DT affected participants’ responses to hypothetical workplace diversity incidents ( Roberson et al. 2009 ), supervisors’ ratings of trainees’ interpersonal skills ( Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ), and creative problem solving within nationally diverse teams ( Homan et al. 2015 ). In a methodologically rigorous study, Chang and colleagues (2019) assessed the impact of the training on the number of female employees nominated for excellent performance in an ostensibly unrelated workplace initiative.

State of the Evidence

Although many trainings demonstrated favorable post-intervention effects with respect to employees’ self-reported cognitive, affective, and skill-based outcomes ( Kalinonski et al. 2013 ), other studies demonstrated more complicated patterns of results. For example, in a quasi-experimental field study, Sanchez & Medkik (2004) found that diversity awareness training actually led to an increase in managers’ unfriendly treatment toward non-White employees, as rated by a coworker specifically assigned to monitor the behavior of each participant. Based on post-intervention interviews, the authors concluded that adverse outcomes arose out of resentment because the trainees believed they had been referred to the mandatory DT following complaints of biased behavior.

Studies that incorporated delayed measures (40.63%) found conflicting evidence that immediate effects translated into enduring changes. For example, Chang and colleagues (2019) investigated the effects of an online DT and found that although some participants reported more positive attitudes toward women immediately after the intervention, there was limited evidence to support the training’s efficacy in delayed behavioral measures collected 3 weeks later. Hill & Augoustinos (2001) studied a program aimed at reducing prejudice toward Aboriginal Australians among employees in a large Australian-based public service organization. Although negative stereotypes and prejudice decreased immediately following the program, these changes did not persist when evaluated 3 months later. Adding to the mixed nature of the findings, Combs & Luthans (2007) found that 1 year after the training, participants who had received DT valued diversity more compared to employees in the control condition. Given that the differences across these studies are numerous (i.e., the particular organizational setting of the training, the content of the DT, the outcomes examined, etc.), it is unclear what underlies the differences observed regarding the long-term effects of DT.

Contradictory findings concerning the impact of DT in organizational settings may highlight the importance of contextual factors that can moderate a program’s effects, such as whether training is mandatory or optional. Research has indicated that compulsory DT can often result in backlash (e.g., Legault et al. 2011 , Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ) and may actually lead to less diversity in the workforce ( Dobbin & Kalev 2016 ). However, voluntary training may only benefit participants who already appreciate diversity at the onset ( Kulik et al. 2007 ). Although the mandatory versus voluntary training debate is beyond the scope of this review, recent research has provided a potential avenue of resolution. Rather than assigning all members of an organization to attend DT, organizations may be better served by equipping socially connected and highly respected individuals with the tools and motivation to inform and persuade other members of a social network to promote greater equity ( Forscher 2017 , Paluck et al. 2016 ).

In our review of the literature, measurements of systemic bias—such as minority representation, prevalence of workplace discrimination, and the promotion rates of historically marginalized employees—were largely absent. Of the articles that adapted a systems-level lens, Waight & Madera (2011) found that in a survey of hospitality employees, offering workplace DT was positively related to job satisfaction, was negatively associated with perceived workplace discrimination, and reduced turnover intentions, but only for employees from historically marginalized groups. In a rigorous cluster-randomized, controlled trial, researchers at the University of Wisconsin–Madison implemented a theoretically and empirically motivated gender bias habit-breaking intervention within STEM departments and evaluated the effects not only on self-reported outcomes (e.g., awareness of bias, self-efficacy to address bias) but also on departmental climate, as assessed in an unrelated annual survey of workplace climate conducted within the university. Faculty in intervention departments reported better fit, felt that their scholarship was more valued by colleagues, and felt more comfortable raising family obligations than did faculty in control departments ( Carnes et al. 2015 ). In an evaluation of the training 2 years later, Devine and colleagues (2017) found that intervention departments demonstrated increased hiring of female faculty compared to control departments.

Taken as a whole, our review of the literature on DT reveals that, in light of the overarching goals of DT in these settings, the evidence regarding the efficacy of DT is for the most part wanting. The lack of systemic and rigorous research investigating company-wide DT, combined with the mixed nature of evidence regarding the efficacy of the programs, prevents us from drawing clear conclusions regarding best practices for organizational DT.

Limitations and Recommendations

Though the evidence amassed to date is limited, it provides some clues as to how to move forward to deliver better investigations of DT within organizations. In evaluating diversity initiatives within organizational settings, researchers must focus on the stated goals of the programs. The common indicators of success seem to be the completion of the program and its favorable evaluation by the trainees, rather than clear progress toward the program’s targeted goals. Given the significance of workplace DT for fostering inclusion and comfort in the face of a diversifying workforce, it is important to evaluate if these goals are being met using scientific methods that allow for testing these hypotheses. Research designed to test the intended objectives of DT should employ large-scale, longitudinal, and contextually relevant methodology as well as objective indicators of success, such as the representation, retention, and advancement of employees from historically marginalized groups ( Moss-Racusin et al. 2014 , Paluck 2006 ). In contrast, our review revealed an overreliance on immediate, self-reported, and individual-level measures that cannot speak to the systems-level goals of DT.

Our review brought into sharp relief the distinction between two types of measures—individual- and systems-level outcomes—that are used to evaluate the extent to which DT brings about change. Although the overarching goals of DT are to create systemic changes (i.e., retention of historically marginalized employees, improved perceptions of workplace climate, decreased frequency of workplace discrimination), researchers most often assess outcomes at the level of the individual (e.g., self-reported measures of knowledge, liking of the program, and attitude), which are often taken as evidence of the training’s effectiveness under the assumption that individual-level changes will translate into systems-level changes. However, individual-level, self-reported cognitive and affective outcomes are, at best, indirect indicators of the intended systems-level changes.

This measurement problem is not unique to DT research. It is well documented, for example, in clinical research when researchers examine the impact of an intervention or treatment on an ultimate outcome by assessing surrogate measures, which are theoretically related outcomes that are often easier, faster, or less costly to measure ( VanderWeele 2013 ). It is likely the ease with which self-reported attitudes and diversity-related knowledge are assessed that led to their continued use as a surrogate outcome for inclusive workplace environments. Although the relationship between individual attitudes and behaviors seems intuitive, the literature on the correspondence between attitudes and behaviors reveals a more complicated relationship ( LaPiere 1934 , Wicker 1969 ). A burgeoning body of literature exposes the substantial disconnect between individuals’ self-reported prejudice-related attitudes and their observed discriminatory behaviors ( Forscher et al. 2019 , Paluck et al. 2020 ).

It is the responsibility of researchers within organizational DT who continue to employ individual-level measures to establish the validity of these measures as surrogate indicators of the ultimate and systems-level outcomes of interest. Evaluating the efficacy of DT training programs requires either ( a ) demonstrating that individual-level outcomes are directly related to the systems-level changes or ( b ) assessing system-level outcomes over time to reveal if the training is truly effective in creating an enduring improvement in the experiences of historically marginalized individuals within an organization. In so doing, researchers can conduct more relevant investigations of DT and better justify the use of individual attitudes and knowledge as a reasonable surrogate measure when evaluating whether the goals of a particular DT are met within an organization.

In support of emphasizing systems-level change, converging evidence suggests that individual DT was more impactful on surrogate outcomes when delivered alongside larger workplace diversity initiatives ( Bezrukova et al. 2016 ) or when openly supported by upper-level management ( Rynes & Rosen 1995 ). This finding is consistent with other researchers’ observations: The effectiveness of DT is limited when company policy does not reflect the concerns of people from traditionally underrepresented groups ( Dobbin & Kalev 2016 , Pendry et al. 2007 ). When company policies appreciate and advocate for historically marginalized employees, it signals the company’s values, scaffolds the creation of prosocial norms, and communicates authorities’ explicit commitment to creating an inclusive company climate. As such, any effective DT should be implemented in tandem with leadership endorsement of diversity initiatives that promote employees from diverse backgrounds rather than delivered in a “one-and-done” approach (see Table 1 for a summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in organizational settings).

Summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in organizational settings

Abbreviation: DT, diversity training.

DIVERSITY TRAINING FOR HUMAN SERVICE PROVIDERS

Members of historically marginalized groups experience lower quality of care and are less likely to receive routine and preventative treatments; they also experience greater difficulties accessing adequate mental health services. As a result, members of marginalized groups face higher rates of morbidity and mortality than nonminority individuals do ( Carratala & Maxwell 2020 ).

To achieve equitable care, many recommend training human service providers to deliver culturally competent care. In the United States, the Office of Minority Health has developed the National Standards on Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services, which continue to be adopted throughout the country. According to these guidelines, culturally competent care takes into account clients’ cultural beliefs, health literacy, and communication needs to provide respectful, accessible, and equitable services. These criteria were developed with the ultimate goals of advancing equity within human services, improving the quality of interactions with clients, and eliminating extant disparities within health-related settings.

During cultural competence trainings, trainees are provided with skills and knowledge presumed to bridge cultural divides and facilitate effective intervention despite a cultural mismatch between clients and providers. DT is proposed to be a vehicle by which to improve the experiences of marginalized clients within human services and reduce inequities in health-related outcomes. Given these goals, as we reviewed the literature we asked, Does cultural competence training lead to improved quality of care in services received by historically marginalized clients? Do culturally competent providers achieve more equitable client outcomes compared to providers without cultural competency training?

Our search for relevant literature yielded 142 articles. The majority of the studies examined the development of cultural competence among medical, health service psychology, social work, and nursing students. Others examined outcomes for health care professionals, including nurses (e.g., Berlin et al. 2010 , Brathwaite & Majumdar 2006 ), hospice staff ( Schim et al. 2006 ), practitioners who specialize in sickle cell disease ( Thomas & Cohn 2006 ), and individuals who work specifically with culturally and linguistically diverse communities ( Henderson et al. 2011 ). Additionally, several studies examined cultural competence training for mental health and wellness professionals, such as counseling graduate students (e.g., Kagnici 2014 ), alcohol and drug counselors ( Luger 2011 ), clinical managers ( Abernethy 2005 ), and occupational therapists ( Leyva et al. 2014 ).

We also included articles (11.97%) that involved trainings for teachers and preservice teachers. Although teaching does not fit neatly with the type of human service provision described previously, the type of DT most often conduced with teachers has goals consistent with cultural competence training. Namely, DT for educators is aimed at cultivating teachers’ cultural competencies to improve interactions with historically marginalized students and mitigate widespread disparities within education.

Cultural competence training aims to increase providers’ knowledge of culturally based beliefs that may influence clients’ experiences with human services. As one example, providers are taught that Hispanic communities may endorse fatalismo , or a belief that health and illness are a product of destiny rather than the object of proactive control, and familismo , or an emphasis on the importance of family input in forming treatment decisions ( Flores 2000 ). Other kinds of DT include antiracism training for child welfare employees ( Johnson et al. 2009 ), a weight stigma reduction intervention for clinical psychology trainees ( Brochu 2020 ), and DT concerning equitable care for members of the LGBTQ+ community in a senior care facility ( Holman et al. 2020 ).

Although the majority of studies implemented cultural competence training for human service providers and trainees, the methods employed varied. Many studies (e.g., Carter et al. 2006 , LoboPrabhu et al. 2000 ) had the trainees role-play clinicians treating patients from different cultural groups, and the trainers provided feedback on the trainees’ cultural sensitivity. Dogra (2001) assigned undergraduate premedical students a disability, such as blindness or hearing impairment, and encouraged students to contemplate the positive and negative aspects of having the disability. Some studies emphasized the importance of navigating language barriers in communicating with linguistically diverse patients (e.g., Henderson et al. 2011 , Xu et al. 2010 ), and one even provided health care workers with foreign language courses ( Mazor et al. 2002 ). One study promoted lessons and structured interactions relevant to caring for refugee families ( Griswold et al. 2006 ). Other trainings relied on more participatory learning, in the form of home visits ( Juarez et al. 2006 ), cultural immersion ( Diaz-Lazaro & Cohen 2001 ), and community-based clinical practicum placements ( Amerson 2010 ).

DT for human service providers emphasizes the importance of increasing both the knowledge and the skills relevant to culturally competent care. Rather than simply teaching trainees about widespread inequities, DT often teaches participants tangible skills that can be implemented to provide more equitable services. For example, one training focused on the importance of communication skills aimed at building trust in patients with sickle cell disease who feel negatively labeled by the health care system ( Thomas & Cohn 2006 ). Similarly, Hughes & Hood (2007) provided nursing students with skills in interview-based cultural assessment to better identify the needs of, and develop a plan of care for, culturally diverse patients. Schim and colleagues (2006) accentuated the importance of hospice workers’ communication skills by scaffolding active listening and use of accessible language in patient interactions. Luger (2011) taught alcohol and drug counselors to identify cultural factors related to mental health stigma and risk in patient assessment and intervention.

In our sample of articles concerning DT for human service providers, 98 studies implemented and quantitatively evaluated trainings delivered by researchers. Of these 98 studies, most studies evaluated outcomes pre- and post-intervention (66.33%), others were quasi-experimental (20.41%), and a few were experimental (13.27%). Although the majority of studies relied only on measures collected immediately posttest, a few studies in our sample included delayed assessments of outcomes (23.47%).

Cultural competence trainings are designed to improve outcomes for clients. Nevertheless, the vast majority of studies (85.71%) utilized human service providers’ self-reported ratings as the primary outcome of interest. The most common outcome assessed was providers’ self-reported cultural competence through the use of established surveys. Other studies assessed trainees’ confidence in interacting with culturally diverse patients, such as health care providers’ self-efficacy in communicating with stigmatized patients (e.g., Thomas & Cohn 2006 ) or students’ transcultural self-efficacy (e.g., Amerson 2010 ). A few studies examined changes in implicit (e.g., Castillo et al. 2007 ) and explicit (e.g., Crandall et al. 2003 ) attitudes toward marginalized groups following a cultural competence intervention.

The emphasis on measuring providers’ cultural competence following DT reflects the assumption that these self-reported outcomes translate into actions that will lead to improved outcomes for clients from historically marginalized groups. However, only a minority of studies (13.27%) tested this assumption by evaluating the impact of DT using behavior-based and systems-level outcomes. As one example, during a 4-month follow up, Prescott-Clements and colleagues (2013) evaluated the impact of their intervention on trainees’ responses to standardized patient scenarios in which actors played patients making inappropriate remarks, experiencing communication difficulties, or having religious concerns about a recommended treatment. Other studies examined patient outcomes directly, such as patient satisfaction ( Mazor et al. 2002 ), patient utilization of health and social services ( Majumdar et al. 2004 ), and patient health outcomes ( Thom et al. 2006 ).

Across the majority of studies surveyed, with some exceptions (e.g., Beagan 2003 ), the evidence suggests that cultural competence training was associated with increases in human service providers’ self-reported cultural competence (e.g., Beach et al. 2005 , Renzaho et al. 2013 ). Results showcasing the efficacy of cultural competence training in promoting knowledge of cross-cultural client care are promising. However, there is less information available about how these improvements translate into provider behaviors that are likely to influence the experiences of clients from historically marginalized groups. The evidence suggests that the cultural competence of human service providers was both associated with ( Castro & Ruiz 2009 , Majumdar et al. 2004 , Weech-Maldonado et al. 2012 ) and unrelated to ( Thom et al. 2006 ) positive patient outcomes, such as patient satisfaction, utilization of treatment resources, and patient trust. Given the contradictory findings and the paucity of research on client outcomes, future research should consider client perspectives as a primary outcome when evaluating the impact of trainings for human service providers ( Lie et al. 2011 , Renzaho et al. 2013 ).

Similarly, studies that evaluated training for preservice teachers found that DT elevated self-reported cultural competence ( Rogers-Sirin & Sirin 2009 ), decreased stereotypic attitudes ( Amatea et al. 2012 ), and led to more positive attitudes toward diversity ( Middleton 2002 ). Few studies examined outcomes that extended beyond preservice teachers’ self-reported attitudes and beliefs; however, those that did found evidence of the training’s impact in participants’ responses to videotaped school-based ethical dilemmas ( Rogers-Sirin & Sirin 2009 ) and teaching case conceptualization ( Amatea et al. 2012 ). No studies in our review examined student outcomes in validating the efficacy of a particular DT for preservice or current teachers.

As was true of studies examining DT within organizational settings, researchers evaluating DT for human service providers were overly reliant on surrogate measures, which makes it difficult to evaluate the efficacy of such training in relation to its stated systems-level goals. Until researchers can show that measures of human service providers’ cultural competence are predictive of objective client outcomes, inferences about how DT within health care settings measures up to its goals are speculative.

Cultural competence training has been articulated as important for providing equitable services. However, very few studies have examined the impact of cultural competence training on actual systems-level outcomes, such as quality of care for historically marginalized clients or disparities in treatment, morbidity, and mortality. Instead, many studies from the field determine the efficacy of cultural competence training by relying on surrogate measures of individual-level provider knowledge, awareness, and self-efficacy. As such, the rationale supporting a cultural competence approach remains circular and rests strongly on the theoretical benefits of cultural competence, rather than on rigorous empirical evidence with respect to client outcomes ( Saha et al. 2013 ). Therefore, future researchers should assess the extent to which human service providers’ cultural competence serves as a reasonable surrogate measure for equitable care.

Additional concerns abound regarding the field’s investment in cultural competence as a model for delivering effective care to clients from historically marginalized groups in the absence of a thorough clarification of the concept. Cultural competence, as a construct and curriculum, largely eludes easy definitions or operationalizations ( Ridley et al. 2001 ). As such, cultural competence training remains underspecified and represents a wide range of heterogenous practices, with little attention to the active ingredients of the approach ( Sue 2001 ).

Beyond these concerns, we also encourage sensitivity to potential pitfalls in the approach, that, if not simultaneously attended to, could undermine the enterprise altogether. We caution against using cultural differences in a reductionist way to predict patient behavior and guide clinician-patient interactions. Such an approach can neglect the heterogeneity among members of cultural groups, encourage the use of race as a proxy for culture, and promote stereotyping. The group categorization processes that are necessary for considering clients’ cultural background in treatment also pave the way for cultural stereotypes to inform health care decisions. The use of stereotypes in human service provision can bias the way providers perceive clients, lead them to be inattentive to individuating information, increase the attention to (and weighting of) stereotype-confirming information, and lead to implicit and nonverbal forms of bias in client-clinician interactions ( Burgess et al. 2007 , Stone & Moskowitz 2011 ).

Cultural competence training should be coupled with education and strategies regarding how to guard against the undue influence of stereotypes to mitigate biased decisions related to client care ( Burgess et al. 2007 , Pankey et al. 2018 , Stone & Moskowitz 2011 ). The psychological literature concludes that, absent personal information about an individual, people often rely on stereotypes to make group-based generalizations. To combat these stereotypes, research suggests that human service providers should actively seek individuating information about a client to prevent stereotypes from filling in the gaps (e.g., Ehrke et al. 2014 , Fiske & Neuberg 1990 ) (see Table 2 for a summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in human service settings).

Summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in human service settings

DIVERSITY TRAINING FOR STUDENTS IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS

Schools are becoming increasingly diverse, yet students from historically marginalized groups still underperform in academic pursuits compared to students from majority groups and relative to their potential ( Natl. Assess. Educ. Prog. 2015 ). The achievement gap is apparent across a wide variety of educational outcomes, including standardized test scores, high school graduation rates, admission rates in secondary education, and placement in gifted and talented programs ( Am. Psychol. Assoc. 2012 ). Although many factors likely contribute to the achievement gap, adverse school climates, which undermine feelings of belonging, may be partly responsible.

Walton & Cohen (2007) found that improving feelings of belonging on campus improved the course grades of historically marginalized students. In a more recent study ( Murrar et al. 2020 ), students who reported being treated more inclusively by their peers had an increased sense of belonging and earned better grades. This research provides encouraging evidence to suggest that improving campus climate can promote the performance and retention of historically marginalized students in higher education.

Many scholars stress the importance of culturally relevant pedagogy as a way to promote a positive school climate and improve the experiences of students from historically marginalized groups within education. Numerous universities across the United States require some form of diversity and inclusion curricula, typically in the form of an ethnic studies course ( Greens 2000 ). Diversity as a pedagogical requirement has not been without its critics (e.g., Goldstein 2019 ). These critiques, however, underscore the importance of understanding what content should be included in diversity-related curricula, whether diversity education is efficacious, and who reaps the benefits of diversity and inclusion in course content.

By scaffolding students’ multicultural awareness, diversity and inclusion curricula are designed to improve school climate for members of historically marginalized groups and to mitigate disparities in educational outcomes. Therefore, in our review of the literature we asked, Do historically marginalized students report fewer instances of school-based discrimination, and do they perceive a greater sense of belonging in schools that require diversity-related coursework? Do schools that offer diversity-related programming demonstrate more equitable educational outcomes relative to schools that do not provide such programming?

We narrowed our focus to include articles that implemented curriculum-based DT for a general student audience rather than for student teachers or medical students, as discussed in the previous section on DT for human service providers. The majority of the studies under consideration delivered DT content during a semester-long college course that involved lectures, assignments, and small-group discussions. The topics of the courses varied; whereas some studies involved women studies courses (e.g., Case & Stewart 2010 , Stake & Hoffmann 2001 ), others examined the impact of psychology of prejudice courses (e.g., Hogan & Mallott 2005 , Kernahan & Davis 2010 ), and still others focused on human sexuality courses (e.g., Mansoori-Rostam & Tate 2017 , McDermott et al. 2018 ).

Other scholars examined the impact of a briefer educational activity, such as a particular curriculum unit ( McDermott et al. 2018 ) or experiential learning activity ( Hillman & Martin 2002 ). Some researchers specifically emphasized the importance of intergroup learning through discussions with classmates from diverse backgrounds (e.g., Nagada et al. 2004 , Schmidt et al. 2019 ). Our sample also included studies investigating the impact of panel presentations ( McDermott et al. 2018 ), role playing ( Hillman & Martin 2002 ), study abroad programs ( Clarke et al. 2009 ), and community events that celebrated diverse cultures ( Klak & Martin 2003 ).

Our search yielded 61 articles on DT in educational settings. Of these studies, 51 systematically and quantitatively evaluated diversity-related programming in a higher education setting. Most of these studies (52.94%) used a quasi-experimental design by comparing students in a course with diversity and inclusion pedagogy to students in a control course. Other studies used pre–post designs (33.33%), for example, by collecting data on the first and last days of the semester (e.g., Fischer 2010 ). Few studies (13.73%) used experimental designs. Although most studies assessed outcomes collected immediately following the training, some studies collected delayed outcomes (29.41%).

The primary outcome of interest for most studies (94.12%) were students’ individual-level, cognitive, and affective reactions. For example, researchers examined students’ racial attitudes (e.g., Hogan & Mallott 2005 , Rudman et al. 2001 ), homophobia (e.g., Hillman & Martin 2002 , Hodson et al. 2009 ), and sexism (e.g., Pettijohn & Walzer 2008 , Yoder et al. 2016 ). Other studies examined participants’ acknowledgment of heterosexual ( Case & Stewart 2010 ), White ( Cole et al. 2011 ), and male ( Case 2007 ) privilege. Our sample also contained studies that evaluated the extent to which curriculum-based DT fostered awareness of diversity-related challenges, such as generalized cultural awareness ( Fischer 2010 ), perceived gender equality ( Colvin-Burque et al. 2007 ), and awareness of racism ( Cole et al. 2011 ).

Very few studies (3.92%) examined outcomes beyond the trainees’ self-reported attitudes and knowledge. In rare exceptions, the researchers examined observational data from classroom discussions ( Ross 2014 ) and changes in students’ measures of implicit bias ( Rudman et al. 2001 ).

Many studies evaluated individual differences or contextual factors that may moderate the impact of diversity-related course material on students’ attitudes. Some studies focused on student characteristics such as open-mindedness ( Fischer 2010 ), race and empathy ( Cole et al. 2011 ), need for cognition ( Hogan & Mallott 2005 ), and course engagement ( Pettijohn & Walzer 2008 ). In contrast, Rudman and colleagues (2001) evaluated the impact of interacting with a Black professor on students’ attitudes both with and without the provision of diversity-related instruction.

Many studies demonstrated a reduction in students’ self-reported prejudice following diversity-related coursework, relative to pretest scores at the beginning of the semester (e.g., Chang 2002 , Colvin-Burque et al. 2007 ). Similarly, of the studies that utilized quasi-experimental designs, many found that students who completed a diversity education course reported lower levels of prejudice immediately following the course (e.g., Hussey et al. 2010 , Rudman et al. 2001 ) compared to students enrolled in courses without diversity-related content.

When implementing a quasi-experimental design, however, researchers should be mindful of the possibility of sample bias among students who enroll in diversity-related courses. Although many students take diversity-related coursework as part of their ethnic studies requirement, other students may take these courses because of their interest in cultural differences, experiences with bias, or passion for diversity-related initiatives ( Denson 2009 ). As a result, students who opt into diversity-related courses may possess traits that foster more positive change relative to students in comparison courses ( Case 2007 , Mansoori-Rostam & Tate 2017 ). In contrast, those required to take such courses may show backlash effects, which undercut the goal of promoting inclusion and reducing biases ( Brannon et al. 2018 , Vianden 2018 ). Researchers should be attentive to, and control for, potential self-selection biases in participant samples who enroll in diversity-related courses, and they should guard against the potential adverse effects of requiring participation in these courses.

In addition, pre–post assessments may be particularly vulnerable to demand effects. Demand effects refer to biased findings that occur when participants infer the experimenters’ hypothesis and then respond to measures in a way that tends to confirm the researchers’ prediction ( Weber & Cook 1972 ). Research suggests that demand effects can be exacerbated if participants have positive attitudes toward the experimenter ( Nichols & Maner 2008 ), which is likely true of many studies in which the experimenter administering questionnaires is also the course’s instructor.

As was true in organizational and human service settings, relatively few studies within education quantitatively evaluated the long-term impact of diversity-related programming. When delayed assessments were included, the evidence was decidedly mixed. For example, Hogan & Mallott (2005) observed reduced homophobia immediately following a psychology of prejudice course, but the effect did not persist across semesters. More encouragingly, McDermott and colleagues (2018) evaluated the impact of a panel presentation and trans-themed film and found a reduction in self-reported prejudice that persisted when evaluated 6 weeks later.

Ethnic studies courses and diversity-related education have been proposed as a panacea for greater inclusion on college campuses. However, caution is warranted given the mixed evidence of the long-term efficacy of ethnic studies courses on cognitive measures. In addition, researchers’ use of self-reported attitudes and knowledge is silent on the extent to which DT in school settings measures up to its stated systems-level goals.

Consistent with our findings in other contexts, our review of the literature on diversity-related curricula in educational settings found that researchers relied on students’ individual-level attitudes as surrogate outcomes for measuring inclusive campus climate and concluded that trainings were effective without considering the perspectives of students from historically marginalized groups. We recommend that future work examine changes over time in systems-level outcomes—such as perceptions of school climate, disparities in academic achievement, and historically marginalized students’ sense of belonging—as more appropriate tests of the benefits of DT in educational settings.

Furthermore, diversity courses that target students’ knowledge and awareness without attending to mechanisms of behavioral change are likely not sufficient to create lasting changes in the form of reduced expressions of bias, increased intergroup inclusion, and improved feelings of belonging for marginalized students. Of the studies reviewed, only one study ( Pedersen & Barlow 2008 ) explicitly implemented antiprejudice strategies throughout the course of an educational program; these researchers used tactics such as combating false beliefs, invoking empathy, meeting local needs, and focusing on changing behaviors as much as attitudes.

Incorporating evidence-based prejudice reduction strategies alongside diversity-related course content is likely essential if DT seeks to make meaningful changes in discriminatory behaviors, not just attitudes ( Sanchez & Medkik 2004 ). Given that one of the goals of DT on college campuses is to promote greater inclusion among the student body, educators should strive to do more than teaching students diversity-related content. To achieve the goal of inclusion for members of historically marginalized groups, curriculum-based DT should also take advantage of bias reduction and inclusion-promoting strategies identified as effective in the psychological literature.

Consider, for example, how educational settings can more intentionally target prejudice-related behaviors through social norm change. Although targeted social norm communication can be leveraged effectively in a variety of settings, pressures to belong and conform are amplified in young adults, rendering social norms particularly salient on college campuses. With this in mind, we echo the recommendations of others in suggesting that targeted social norm communication can be a powerful approach for reducing prejudicial behavior within school settings (e.g., Murrar et al. 2020 , Tankard & Paluck 2016 ). Higher education institutions can implement social norm change through the communication of diversity-related values in the form of pro-diversity posters ( Murrar et al. 2020 ), campus events ( Klak & Martin 2003 ), and the recruitment of students from marginalized groups ( Hurtado 2005 ). Fellow students can be particularly influential in the communication of social norms through the confrontation of prejudice ( Czopp & Monteith 2003 ), student-led protests and organizations ( Paluck et al. 2016 ), and diversity-related discussions both in and out of the classroom ( Alimo 2012 ).

Another prejudice reduction strategy from the social psychological literature that may be particularly fruitful within the context of DT for higher education is purposeful intergroup contact. Classroom settings naturally create ideal contexts (e.g., small group discussions, collaborative group projects) in which intergroup contact can meet the requirements needed for reductions in bias ( Allport 1954 ). In a meta-analysis of 16 studies, Denson (2009) found that ethnic studies courses that provided students with additional positive interracial contact produced larger effects on students’ attitudes compared to courses that just focused on teaching diversity-related course content. This research suggests that direct intergroup contact with peers from diverse backgrounds may be important for providing students with a space to apply the content gleaned from their courses, as this enables them to actualize their more positive intergroup attitudes into more inclusive behaviors ( Gurin et al. 2004 , Zúñiga et al. 2002 ).

However, in considering the utility of intergroup contact as a tool for increased inclusion on college campuses, further attention should be allocated to the experiences of contact for people of color. Some research suggests that the positive effects of intergroup contact may not extend to members of historically marginalized groups ( Dixon et al. 2010 , Pettigrew & Tropp 2006 , Schellhaas & Dovidio 2016 ). Given that the ultimate goal of DT in education is to improve the experiences of individuals from historically marginalized groups, future researchers should prioritize evaluating the extent to which intergroup contact improves not only the attitudes of majority group members but also the experiences of marginalized group members. To this end, forthcoming research should ensure that individuals from historically marginalized groups are not overburdened facilitators of intergroup contact without benefit (see Table 3 for a summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in educational settings).

Summary of the literature and our recommendations for DT in educational settings

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DIVERSITY TRAINING ACROSS CONTEXTS

We began our deep dive into the literature on DT with the intention of illuminating best practices in the delivery of DT. We discovered that the available scholarship on DT is large and complex, and there is little consensus on the specific definitions of DT, the overarching goals of DT, or the particular practices that comprise DT. Further complicating these efforts, our review of the empirical literature in each discipline revealed a number of shortcomings that limit our ability to draw clear conclusions regarding which, if any, DT programs are effective in reaching their objectives. More troubling, many studies reveal the potential for adverse effects following DT (e.g., Brannon et al. 2018 , Legault et al. 2011 ). Unfortunately, our primary conclusion following our review of the recent literature echoes that of scholars who conducted reviews of the DT literature in the past. Despite multidisciplinary endorsement of the practice of DT, we are far from being able to derive clear and decisive conclusions about what fosters inclusivity and promotes diversity within organizations ( Bezrukova et al. 2016 , Carter et al. 2020 , Green & Hagiwara 2020 , Moss-Racusin et al. 2014 , Paluck 2006 , Paluck & Green 2009 , Paluck et al. 2020 ).

This state of affairs is concerning, particularly in light of the enthusiasm for, and monetary investment in, DT. Implementation of DT has clearly outpaced the available evidence that such programs are effective in achieving their goals. As such, we advise caution and tempered enthusiasm for the widespread implementation of DT. In the spirit of propelling the science of DT forward, we offer some recommendations, which cut across contexts or subfields, for how to build a more rigorous and relevant science of DT. Following these recommendations would allow DT scientists to create an evidence base that would have clear and applied utility for DT practitioners and consumers. We encapsulated the implications of these recommendations into a list of questions that every scholar of DT should be able to answer and every practitioner and consumer of DT should want to know before implementing any given DT (see Table 4 ). Although the list is not exhaustive, it is our hope that readers will use Table 4 to ask hard questions about DT programs and to be more purposeful in the selection, implementation, and evaluation of DT across contexts.

Recommended questions for proponents of DT to consider a

First, no single DT should be marketed as a magic bullet for equity. Rather, we advocate for an approach to the development of DT that is grounded in relevant theory and informed by empirical evidence to justify the content of the training, the rationale for the practices used, the boundary conditions anticipated, and the hypothesized mechanisms by which the program effects change. It is not enough to simply consult prior research and pluck bias reduction strategies from the literature, such as individuation, social norm communication, or intergroup contact. The elements of DT should be selected to align with the particular goals of the organization and to address the specific problem the program is designed to solve. Although existing psychological research can provide practitioners of DT with hypotheses about how bias reduction strategies may operate within a specific DT, these hypotheses need to be assessed within the context of the full training and in reference to the long-term goals of the program. In proposing a systematic approach to the creation of DT programs, we recommend that programs be tailored to the specific context of implementation and revised in an iterative fashion, based on evidence, to enhance their efficacy.

Next, we suggest that DT research needs to become more rigorous. As noted previously, some scholars argue that we should be ethically bound to demonstrate that DT programs are effective and, just as important, do no harm ( Paluck 2012 ). To this end, we advocate for the use of experimental designs with relevant samples to provide persuasive evidence of the utility of a particular approach. Whenever possible, it is recommended that researchers undertake the challenge of randomized controlled trials to provide causal evidence of the hypothesized effects of a DT. In the best possible circumstances, control groups will contain an active component that will enable researchers to test the efficacy of a particular DT program against an alternative training program. When not viable, wait-list controls can be utilized to test the short-term effects of DT and to ensure that a particular DT, if found to be effective, is eventually disseminated to all members of an organization. Whenever randomized controlled trials are not feasible, researchers should stay vigilant to, and control for, potential threats to the validity of their studies. In addition, experimental studies should extend outside the lab, and into the field settings with relevant populations, to evaluate the functionality of a particular approach for practitioners and consumers (see also Paluck et al. 2020 ).

In developing a more rigorous and relevant science of DT, greater attention should be paid to the types of outcomes that will provide evidence that the DT offered is actually effective. This process starts with an analysis of the particular problem an organization is trying to solve by implementing DT. This analysis should then determine the goals for training, the relevant DT approach, and the outcomes that will reveal if the DT was effective ( Campbell & Brauer 2020 , Carter et al. 2020 ). Failing to undertake this type of analysis limits the utility of DT research.

One of the most striking features of current research on DT across disciplines is that the outcomes most often used to examine the impact of DT are, at best, limited in terms of what they can reveal regarding the efficacy of the training. We observed throughout our review an overreliance on surrogate and individual-level measures, all of which could be helpful in achieving goals related to equity, yet few of them bear directly on the stated goals of the DT. To better advance the science of DT, scholars must hold the success of their interventions to a higher standard by attending to more than just individual-level self-reported outcomes. We encourage future researchers to extend beyond commonly used cognitive and affective measures and to assess instead a wide range of outcomes (including consequential, behavioral, and systems-level outcomes) to better shed light on the potential breadth of the effects of a DT program.

DT is marketed to improve the experiences of employees, clients, and students from historically marginalized groups and to achieve greater equity across settings. However, research on DT, as well as its practice, only infrequently attends to the perspectives and experiences of individuals who are at risk for experiencing discrimination. Given this focus, we suggest that historically marginalized individuals should be consulted during the planning process, if DT is to be effective in meeting its goals. Input and involvement from members of historically marginalized groups should be actively sought in determining whether and how to deliver DT within their settings. By ensuring that historically marginalized individuals have a seat at the table in the development and selection of diversity-related initiatives, organizations can certify that these individuals’ voices are heard and their perspectives are represented. Beyond involving members of historically marginalized groups in the early planning stages of DT, evidence supporting the efficacy of DT necessitates a better understanding of the experiences of historically marginalized individuals as a function of diversity, equity, and inclusion programming ( Roberts et al. 2020 ).

Finally, researchers should better determine the long-term impacts of their trainings by conducting follow-up assessments over time. Rather than implementing and evaluating DT within a “one-and-done” approach, the science of DT would be better served by longitudinal assessments of systems-level outcomes to ensure that DT achieves its stated goals. Specifically, we argued for an evaluation of the recruitment, promotion, and retention of employees from historically marginalized groups in organizational settings. We asked researchers in human services to attend to rates of morbidity, mortality, and treatment adherence in validating the benefits of cultural competence training. And we advised scholars of diversity education not to neglect perceived belonging, retention, and achievement of students from historically marginalized groups in higher education.

In advancing these recommendations, we acknowledge that these recommendations impose significant demands on the proponents of DT. The kinds of studies we are advocating represent enormous undertakings that would require tremendous resources in terms of time, money, and personnel. Considering these challenges, it may be easy to understand why many studies to date have involved less rigorous empirical methods and easy-to-collect outcome measures. However, given the immense investment in the practice of DT, a more ambitious research agenda is necessary for DT to measure up to its stated goals. In the service of ensuring that diversity scholarship offers utility to both practitioners and consumers, particularly for individuals facing discrimination, we cannot be complacent about the current state of the evidence in support of DT.

In the pursuit of an improved science of DT, we join other scholars ( Carter et al. 2020 , Paluck 2006 ) who suggest that building this type of rigorous and relevant evidentiary base necessitates the forging of collaborative relationships between social scientists and organizations. Partnerships between scholars and organizations will allow research on DT to strike a balance between scientific rigor and practical utility by providing future researchers with a potential avenue for bringing their work out of the lab and into settings where the benefits of psychological research can be realized. Through these collaborations, practitioners can be better grounded in the empirical literature, and DT research can become better contextualized in applied settings. Supporting this suggestion, we note that some of the most methodologically impressive studies in this review are the result of successful partnerships (e.g., Carnes et al. 2015 , Chang et al. 2019 , Moss-Racusin et al. 2018 ). Although field experiments of this kind require careful consideration on the part of both practitioners and researchers, such partnerships would be mutually beneficial and, importantly, would offer the best way to ensure that DT lives up to consumer expectations and rigorous experimental standards.

In closing, we acknowledge that our review could be viewed as a general rebuke of DT as an enterprise. We would like to clarify that this is not at all the case. Indeed, we are strong proponents of the importance of creating conditions whereby members of historically marginalized groups can be included, feel respected, and thrive. We appreciate the potential benefits of diversity-related initiatives and value the goals upon which the practice of DT has been built. We urge the field to create a more rigorous and relevant science of DT in the service of making it possible for the practice of DT to achieve its goals. We recognize that the challenge we laid out for the science of DT is enormous and echoes, in many ways, the calls advanced in prior reviews of DT (e.g., Moss-Racusin et al. 2014 , Paluck & Green 2009 , Paluck et al. 2020 ). The enormity of the challenge, however, pales in comparison to the potential benefits of DT. We hope that our call to action and the roadmap for how to build a better diversity science will make it possible for the next review of the DT literature to offer effective, evidence-based best practices in DT.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank undergraduate members of the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Prejudice and Intergroup Relations Lab for their work collecting and coding articles for this review. In addition, we appreciate the thoughtful feedback received from Megan Bruun, Emily Dix, Katharine Scott, and Katherine Swerbenski on earlier versions of this manuscript. In particular, we would like to thank Nicole Huth for her substantial contributions to the project and her helpful comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript. Preparation of this review was also supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant R011R35GM127043-01). The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the National Institutes of Health.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

1 Studies were coded once for design, and the most rigorous design feature was recorded. For example, although many studies with random assignment to condition included pre- and post-assessments, these were coded as experimental.

2 Although most studies included multiple outcomes, the studies were coded for their primary outcome, as specified in the abstract, which usually coincided with the variable that demonstrated effects ( Paluck et al. 2020 ). However, in the case of studies that included a behavioral or implicit (i.e., not self-reported) outcome, this was prioritized as the primary outcome of interest.

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Getting Serious About Diversity: Enough Already with the Business Case

• Robin J. Ely
• David A. Thomas

Leaders may mean well when they tout the economic payoffs of hiring more women and people of color, but there is no research support for the notion that diversifying the workforce automatically improves a company’s performance. This article critiques the popular rhetoric about diversity and revisits an argument the authors made 25 years ago: To fully benefit from increased racial and gender diversity, organizations must adopt a learning orientation and be willing to change the corporate culture and power structure.

Four actions are key for leaders: building trust and creating a workplace where people feel free to express themselves; actively combating bias and systems of oppression; embracing a variety of styles and voices inside the organization; and using employees’ identity-related knowledge and experiences to learn how best to accomplish the firm’s core work.

It’s time for a new way of thinking.

Idea in Brief

The context.

Business leaders often make a business case for diversity, claiming that hiring more women or people of color results in better financial performance.

The Problem

There’s no empirical evidence that simply diversifying the workforce, absent fundamental changes to the organizational culture, makes a company more profitable.

A Better Approach

Companies can benefit from diversity if leaders create a psychologically safe workplace, combat systems of discrimination and subordination, embrace the styles of employees from different identity groups, and make cultural differences a resource for learning and improving organizational effectiveness.

“The business case has been made to demonstrate the value a diverse board brings to the company and its constituents.”

• RE Robin J. Ely is the Diane Doerge Wilson Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School and the faculty chair of the HBS Gender Initiative.
• DT David A. Thomas is the president of Morehouse College. He is also the H. Naylor Fitzhugh Professor Emeritus at Harvard Business School and the former dean of Georgetown University’s McDonough School of Business.

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The inclusive leadership handbook: balancing people and performance for sustainable growth.

The Inclusive Language Handbook: A Guide to Better Communication and Transformational Leadership

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Interested in learning how we’ve helped our clients build winning culture and better business outcomes through diversity, equity, and inclusion? Select one of the case studies below to learn more.

Following 4-year engagement, healthcare company among America's “Greatest Workplaces for Diversity” 2 years in a row

Employee Engagement Grows Steadily Thanks to Culture-Building Initiatives

Professional Association Gains Cultural Knowledge Needed to Create a More Inclusive Member Experience

Nonprofit uses DEI Navigator resources to increase staff understanding of DEI and cultivate a more inclusive workplace culture

University crafts an inclusive process to acknowledge its history and cultivate a more welcoming campus environment.

A collaborative approach to DEI encourages real change in engineering consulting.

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