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Essay on Millets

Students are often asked to write an essay on Millets in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Millets

What are millets.

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. They are not just one type of grain but include several similar small-seeded grains from different grass species.

Nutrition in Millets

Millets are nutritious, offering protein, dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals. They are especially good for health because they have high iron, calcium, and magnesium. Plus, they don’t have gluten, so they are great for people who can’t eat wheat.

Types of Millets

There are many kinds of millets. Some common ones are pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Each type has its own unique taste and benefits, making them versatile for cooking.

Growing Millets

Millets are tough plants. They can grow in poor soil conditions and need less water than crops like rice or wheat. This makes them a smart choice for farmers in dry areas.

Benefits for Farmers

For farmers, millets are less risky because they can survive harsh weather and grow on less fertile land. They are also ready for harvest quicker, which can help farmers avoid crop losses.

250 Words Essay on Millets

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. They are not just one plant but a group of plants. People have been growing millets for thousands of years, and they are very important for feeding people in many countries, especially in Asia and Africa.

There are several types of millets. Some common ones include pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Each type has its own unique taste and is used in different dishes. For example, pearl millet is often used to make bread in India.

Benefits of Millets

Millets are very good for your health. They are rich in nutrients like vitamins, minerals, and fiber. They can help your body in many ways, like keeping your heart healthy and helping you digest food better. Because they don’t need much water to grow, they are also good for the environment.

How Millets Grow

Millets are strong plants that can grow in tough environments where other crops might not survive. They can grow with little water and in poor soil. This makes millets very useful for farmers in dry areas where it’s hard to grow other grains.

Using Millets

People use millets to make different kinds of foods. You can cook them like rice or make porridge. Millets can also be ground into flour to bake bread or cakes. They are a tasty and healthy choice for meals and snacks.

In conclusion, millets are an important food for many people around the world. They are healthy, easy to grow, and can be used in many delicious ways.

500 Words Essay on Millets

Millets are small-seeded grasses widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Unlike rice and wheat that might need lots of water, millets don’t require much. They are hardy and can grow in tough environments where other crops might not survive. This makes them an excellent choice for farmers who live in places with less rain or poor soil.

There are several types of millets, each with its own unique qualities. Some of the most common types include pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet. Pearl millet is known for its ability to grow in very hot places. Finger millet has a high amount of calcium, which is good for bones. Foxtail millet is rich in dietary fiber, which helps in digestion.

Nutritional Value

Millets are a powerhouse of nutrition. They are packed with vitamins, minerals, and fiber. They have less sugar than other grains, making them a healthier choice. Millets are also rich in protein, which is important for building muscles. They are gluten-free, which is good news for people who cannot eat wheat because of allergies.

Environmentally Friendly

Millets are not only good for our health but also for our planet. They need less water and can grow in poor soils, which reduces the need for fertilizers and other chemicals. By requiring fewer resources, millets are more sustainable and can help in the fight against climate change.

Uses of Millets

Millets can be used in many ways. People can cook them just like rice or make porridge. They can be ground into flour and used for baking bread, cakes, and biscuits. In some cultures, millets are used to make traditional drinks or even popped like popcorn.

Challenges and Opportunities

Even with all their benefits, millets are not as popular as other grains like rice or wheat. One reason might be that people are not aware of how good millets are. There is a need to tell more people about the benefits of millets and how to cook them. As more people start eating millets, there will be more demand, which can help farmers and the environment.

Millets are a group of highly nutritious, environmentally friendly grains that offer a variety of health benefits. They are versatile in their use and can be a great addition to our diets. By choosing millets, we can take a step towards a healthier lifestyle and a better planet. It is important for schools, parents, and governments to teach children about the importance of millets so that they can make smarter food choices for their future.

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Significance of millets for food and nutritional security—an overview

• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  73 , ( 2024 )

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• Thillaigovindan Sanjay Kumar 1 ,
• Raman Nageswari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3434-8438 2 ,
• Selvaraj Somasundaram 3 ,
• Pokkaru Anantharaju 3 ,
• Murugaiyan Baskar 4 ,
• Thanakkan Ramesh 5 ,
• Selvaraj Rathika 5 ,
• Chockalingam Vanniarajan 1 &
• Kasirajan Subrahmaniyan 2  

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Millets are an important traditional food known for their dietary diversity. They play a key role in ensuring human health and well-being. Millets, which are small-seeded grains cultivated widely in various areas of the world, have emerged as significant contributors to this paradigm shift. They are nutrition powerhouses, that boast raised levels of dietary fibre, protein, vitamins, and minerals. Since they are gluten free, those with celiac disease may utilize them and serve as alternatives to wheat products. The promotion of these grains as a staple food holds significant promise for facing the global challenges of malnutrition, food insecurity, and environmental degradation. Moreover, millets contain bio-active compounds like flavonoids, lignin, phenolic acids reduce inflammation and serve as antioxidants. Millets have positive health benefits related to blood sugar, cardiovascular disease and obesity, and the gastrointestine. This article provides an overview of the functional role of millets as promising food for human health.

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1 Introduction

The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) envisages healthy diets from foods which are more desirable and affordable in its Global Food policy Report, 2024. Currently, the world population is facing the twin problems of malnutrition i.e., under-nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies along with obesity. In countries like Africa and South Asia, more than two billion people cannot afford a healthy food [ 1 ]. As the food and nutritional security remain critical concerns in the world as a whole in the current era, millets offer a sustainable solution to the global challenge. The term "millet" originated from ‘mille’, a French word. Millets belong peculiarly to the Poaceae family with small seeded grasses that can thrive in critical agroclimatic situations [ 2 ]. They are course cereals that serve as fodder and also called by other names, such as “Cereals of the poor, Siridhanya, Nutri-cereals, Super foods and Next Generation Smart Foods” [ 3 ]. In fact, the millets were also called “orphan crops” by the Father of Green Revolution, Dr. M.S. Swaminathanan [ 4 ]. They play a notable role in India's ecological and economic stability. Cereal foods serve as vital parts of the food chain because they contain essential micro and macro elements and particularly non-nutrient bio actives. Millets have several recognized health benefits due to their potent mineral and vitamin profile as well as low glycemic index, dietary energy and fat. Epidemiological data show an important link between the consumption of millets and a reduced incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancers [ 5 ]. Millets are often called to as "energy houses of nutrients," renowned for being an excellent source of retinol (Vitamin A), particularly abundant in yellow pearl millets. Additionally, millets are rich in essential micro nutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). They contain high levels of cystine, methionine, and other essential amino acids, contributing positively to human health. Moreover, millets are gluten-free and boast higher fibre and protein content compared to other cereals [ 6 ]. The limiting factors like water scarcity, elevated food prices, increasing global populations, changing climate and various socio-economic factors present significant threats to agriculture and food security across the world, particularly impacting impoverished communities residing in dry regions [ 7 ]. In recent years, the resurgence of interest in millets has sparked innovative research and development initiatives aimed at unlocking their full potential. From value-added products to policy advocacy, stakeholders across sectors are recognizing the critical role of millets in achieving sustainable development goals, alleviating hunger and ensuring good health and well-being. This overview delves into the profound significance of millets in ensuring food and nutritional security, throwing light on their diverse benefits and potential to transform agricultural landscapes and dietary patterns worldwide.

2 Global scenario of millets

The year of 2023 will be observed as the ‘Global Year of Millets’ because these millets are recognized as sustainable options for achieving food and nutritional security, garnering significant attention due to their health benefits and environmentally friendly characteristics[ 2 ]. However, the area and production of traditional millet cultivation in India has experienced a decline [ 8 ]. The growth rate of millet in terms of both area and production exhibited a negative trend, at a declining rate of 16.31% and 13.58% in area and production per year, respectively. Similarly, productivity showed a downward track until 2005 [ 9 ]. Approximately 97% of millets are both produced and consumed by developing countries, with a notable concentration in Africa and Asia. India holds the position as the largest grower of millets at global level, accounting for 26.6% of the world's production and 83% of Asia's millet cropping area [ 10 ]. These sorts of plants can be raised either as a sole crop or as an inter crop with pulses, oilseeds, spices, and condiments [ 11 ]. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) has highlighted that the millets consumption was higher in the states of Karnataka (finger millet), Gujarat (pearl millet, maize), Maharashtra (sorghum) but inadequate among the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala and Tamil Nadu where the majority of popular cereal consumed is rice [ 12 ]. On estimating the future scenario of millets in India which is the largest grower of millets in the world, [ 8 ] found that there might be a net surplus of 3.48–3.81 mt in the case of bajra, and 0.14–0.19 mt in the case of small millets by 2029. But in the case of jowar and ragi there may be a net deficit in a range of 1.14–0.83 and 0.29–0.14 mt respectively, envisaging the important measures to be taken to ensure assured supply.

3 Types of millets

In India, varieties of millets are cultivated and consumed which encompass Finger millet ( Eleusine coracana L.), Pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum L.), Barnyard millet ( Echinocloa esculenta A. and Echinocloa colona L.), Foxtail millet ( Setaria italica L. sub sp. italica ), Proso millet ( Panicum miliaceum L. sub sp. miliaceum ), Kodo millet ( Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), and little millet ( Panicum sumatrense Roth.)

3.1 Major millets

Major millet includes sorghum (Jowar), Finger millet (Ragi) and Pearl millet (Bajra) that are cultivated widely throughout the world.

3.1.1 Pearl millet

Pearl millet or Bajra ( Pennisetum glaucum L.) is the frequently grown type of millet [ 13 ] and it is assumed to have originated as early as 5000 years ago in Africa [ 14 ]. Globally, it is the sixth most important cereal and fourth most tropical cereal after rice, corn and sorghum. It is also called as ‘cereal of sahel’ [ 15 ].

3.1.2 Finger millet

The probable origin of Finger millet or Ragi ( Eleusine coracana L.) is said to the highlands of Ethiopia and Uganda. The ear heads of the crop bear a resemblance to the fingers of a human hand, hence earning it the name "finger millet” [ 16 ]. The crop is well-suited to tropical climates with intermediate altitudes ranging from 500 to 2400 m and experiences low to moderate rainfall between 500 and 1000 mm. It can survive dry and hot conditions, with temperatures reaching up to 35 °C, particularly in well-drained soils [ 17 ].

3.2 Minor millets

The group of minor millets includes proso millet ( Panicumm miliaceum ), kodo millet ( Paspalum scrobiculatum ), foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ), barnyard millet ( Echinochloa frumentacea ), little millet ( Panicum sumatrense ), and browntop millet ( Brachiaria ramose ) [ 18 ]. These millets can be cultivated for both food and fodder purposes [ 4 , 9 ]. These can enhance the immune system of humans, serve as fodder for livestock, contribute to biodiversity enhancement, and support the livelihoods of farmers [ 19 ]. The appropriate blend of minerals, vitamins along with antioxidants found in grains of millet implies the potential optimization of immune system performance. The significant presence of resistant starch in millets guarantees a gradual and sustained release of glucose into the bloodstream, supplying a daily requirement of calories ranging from 2000 to 3000 per individual [ 20 ].

4 Agrarian importance of millets

Millets, are one of the oldest food crops and also small-seeded hardy crops that may be grown even in dry or rain-fed areas with less soil fertility and moisture conditions. It also adapts to degraded saline, acidic and aluminium toxic soils [ 21 ] (Yadav and Rai 2013). In semi-arid and tropical regions globally, millets hold significant agricultural importance due to their short life cycle, resilience against pests and diseases, and ability to maintain high productivity even under various stress conditions [ 3 , 22 ] and it can be commonly cultivated in areas with low-fertility soil by tribal communities in rain-fed regions, and even in hilly areas. This highly advantageous characteristic of millets is particularly crucial in densely populated areas worldwide [ 23 ]. Millets can be cultivated in shallow, low-fertility soils, thriving in a pH range from acidic (4.5) to basic (8.0) [ 24 ]. Millets comes under the category of C4 cereals, which is well-known for their ability to efficiently utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converting it to oxygen. They exhibit high Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and require minimal inputs, making them environmentally friendly. Therefore, millets have the potential to alleviate climatic uncertainties, reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and play a role in mitigating climate change [ 25 ]. Millets can grow even in low rainfall regions with notable Water Use Efficiency.

(Table  1 ) presents the major and minor millets along with their respective growing conditions for comparison.

5 Millet as food

During the 1990s, Prime Minister HD Deve Gowda publicly declared ragi mudde (consisting of fingermillet balls served with sambar ), as his favorite dish in Karnataka. This declaration sparked a nationwide trend, leading to restaurants offering the dish under the moniker "Prime Minister's Delight". Stories like these echoes across continents, where millets have been a dietary staple for centuries. But it's not just tradition that makes these grains special; it's their remarkable contribution to human health that demands attention. Likewise, Millets have gained interest as functional foods because of their health-promoting phytochemicals. Across various states in India, millets have long been an integral part of tribal food, including Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, and Uttarakhand [ 26 ]. They offer a safe substitute for people with gluten allergy and celiac disease, being non-acid forming and non-allergenic, which makes them easily digested [ 7 ]. Numerous anti-nutritional compounds, including protease inhibitors, phytates, lectins, galacto-oligosaccharides, tannins, ureases, phenolics, and saponins, are found in millets. However, these anti-nutritional factors can be neutralized through various processing methods such as steeping, cooking, roasting, malting, germination, and fermentation [ 11 ].

A variety of conventional dishes and beverages can be prepared from millets, which includes bread, roti, porridge, snacks, baby foods, fast foods, millet nutrition powder, and millet wine [ 27 ]. The research findings of [ 28 ], states that processing plays a unique role in utilizing millets as food. Millets can undergo various processing methods such as sprouting, roasting, popping, salting, and fermenting to create products like ready-to-eat grains, porridges, and fermented foods [ 28 ] are listed in (Table  2 ). In various millet-growing regions of Tamil Nadu, traditional millet recipes include idli , samai dosa, pakoda, vaddai, adai, sweet halwa, and kolukattai are made from finger millet; kabab or burfi from foxtail millet and porridge, payasam and puttu from little millet.

In southern parts of Karnataka, both urban and rural populations commonly consume Mudde (thick porridge) made using finger millet. Incorporating 50–75% flour from barnyard millet is feasible for the preparation of idly, rotis, chakli, and dosa [ 28 ].

5.1 Millet—based snacks

Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and East Asia are home to a wide variety of traditional millet-based foods and beverages, including whole-grain snacks, flatbreads, steaming entrees, dumplings, porridges, and puffed products. Since most millets have a low gluten content, they need to be added as component in amounts ranging from 20% for bread to 50% for cookies [ 34 ]. Extrusion, baking, spray drying, gun puffing and popping, malting, instant mixing, and brewing are some of the food processing techniques used on millet grains to create a variety of millet products. These include instant mixes, convenient, ready-to-eat, and ready-to-cook products; novel food products, such as meal bars, pellets, muesli, edible films, roti/chapatti (unleavened bread), idli  (fermented savory cake), dosa  (fermented pancake), koozh, koko, togwa, dambu, chhyang, ogi, uji, and brewed drinks [ 35 ] which playa key role in daily food habits.

5.1.1 Puffed and flaked millet

The technique of popping or puffing cereals is practiced conventionally for preparing grains to serve as either a breakfast or snack cereal. These puffed grains may be eaten plain or seasoned with spices, salt, or sweeteners, offering a versatile and flavourful option for consumption [ 36 ]. The process of flaking involves pearling, hydrothermal treatment, flaking/rolling and blistering which bring in changes in the nutrient composition and phytochemical contents resulting in the ready cooking of flakes. These products have therapeutic effects. Phytochemicals in plant foods are believed to exert beneficial health effects by combating oxidative stress in the body [ 37 , 38 ]. The process of milling resulted in the highest and lowest mineral contents in whole and polished grains, respectively, also dehulling of millets resulted in a significant impact on the total dietary fibre content. To prepare expanded flakes, foxtail millet and finger millet flour were cooked within the temperature range of 80–100 °C, with varying water levels (100 to 130 ml) and durations (1 to 3 min) to make the dough. Subsequently, the dough was extruded using a manual extruder and then flaked to a thickness of 0.6 mm. Finally, the flakes are roasted at temperatures between 90–110 °C for a duration of 5–15 min [ 39 ]. [ 40 ] The grains were conditioned for 2 h with a moisture content of 20% and then subjected to puffing in hot sand at temperatures ranging from 220 °C to 230 °C. A ready-to-eat (RTE) snack food was established by using barnyard millet ( Echinochloa frumentacea ) as the base ingredient and a thin rectangular-shaped pieces were created by steam-cooking cold extrudate (pieces of dough) and then subjected to puffing using the high temperature short time (HTST) puffing process. The dough consisted of barnyard millet, tapioca powder, and potato mashat at a ratio of 60:3:37 [ 41 , 42 ]. Flaking significantly reduced the moisture, protein, crude fat and total minerals in sorghum [ 43 ].

5.1.2 Noodles and other food products

Noodles are highly favoured by any age group because of their extended shelf life and significant commercial value. Convenience foods, including noodles and pasta, are made by using a cold extrusion process, which, when dried, becomes brittle and stiff. Preparing these noodles is highly convenient and only takes a brief period. Noodles with various mixtures were manufactured, including those composed solely of finger millet (ragi), an association of finger millet and wheat at a 1:1 ratio, and a mixture of finger millet, wheat, and soy flour at a 5:4:1 ratio. Additionally, pasta formulations may incorporate with finger millet, soy flour, and refined wheat with compositions ranging from 50%, 40%, and 10% respectively [ 44 ]. Barnyard millet exhibited a relatively low carbohydrate content (58.56%) with a slow digestibility rate of 25.88% [ 28 ]. This health advantage of millet was utilized in the creation of value-added noodles with a low glycemic index using barnyard millet flour. This involved incorporating sago flour, pulse flour, and bengal gram leaf powder at varying levels to produce plain, pulse, and vegetable noodles, respectively [ 45 ].

Ladoo (sweet balls) and shankarpara (flakes) were prepared using foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) or kanagini by replacing half of the refined wheat flour with foxtail millet flour. Kanagini ladoo had a protein content of 13.13%, ash content of 4.92%, and iron and zinc levels of 13.83 and 2.35 mg/100 g respectively [ 46 ]. As a result of their study, Srivastava produced popped grains from barnyard, foxtail, and little millet by utilizing common salt as the heating medium. This process involved placing millet and salt in an open iron pan at a ratio of 1:20 and heating them at temperatures between 240 °C and 260 °C for 15 to 25 s [ 47 ].

5.2 Vadagam

It is a traditional recipe typically prepared by mixing kodo millet flour, along with chili powder, cumin powder, salt and water, and making thin slices of the produce followed by sun-drying. It is used after deep-frying in hot oil as needed. Once prepared, the final product is sun-dried and stored in an airtight container to extend its shelf life [ 48 ].

5.3 Non-alcoholic beverages

‘ Oshikundu ’ from Namibia, ‘ Kunun-zaki ’ from Nigeria, ‘Malwa/Ajon’ from Uganda, and ‘Uji’ from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are the non-alcoholic drinks made from millets. ‘Jandh’ from Nepal, ‘ Kodo ko jaanr’ from India, Nepal, and Bhutan, ‘ Burukutu ’ from West Africa, ‘Koozh ’ and ‘ Madua Apong ’ from India, and ‘ Xiao mi jiao ’ from Taiwan are some of the alcoholic beverages [ 54 ].

5.4 Fermented foods

In addition to enhancing flavour, fermentation increases food value by adding protein, calcium, fibre, vitamin B, and, in turn, increasing protein digestibility while lowering anti-nutrient levels in food grains [ 56 ]. Some of the fermented food products prepared from millet and microorganisms used forfermentation are listed in Table  3 .

6 Nutrient components of millets

According to the analysis of [ 64 ], millets are essential for maintaining nutritional security for people worldwide because they offer calories and protein. Millets have a high protein content and are also high in essential amino acids, excluding lysine and threonine [ 12 ], but comparatively high in amino acids that include sulphur, such as cysteine and methionine. Millets are remarkable with 60–70% starch, 7–11% protein, 2–7% crude fibre, 1.5–5% fat, and flavonoids. However, they are not given much importance or sufficient awareness. Additionally, millets are gluten free and filled with essential vitamins and nutrients such as iron, calcium, potassium, zinc, and magnesium, essential fatty acids, and amino acids [ 65 , 66 ] reported that foxtail millet constitutes an excellent source of protein with a value of 14%, and brown top millet was rich in fibre and zinc contents of 16.08% and 66.10 mg, respectively. Kodo millet had an impressive iron content of 206.5 mg, and a high amount of calcium was observed in finger millet (3811.98 mg). Moreover, millets contain more lipids than sorghum, rice, and maize [ 67 ]. The nutritional contents of different millets are depicted in Table  4 .

[ 69 ] reported that pearl millet and finger millet are rich in micro-nutrients like calcium (10–348 mg/100 g), iron (2.2–17.7 mg/100 g), zinc (0.4 –2.8 mg/100 g), and phosphorus (189–293 mg/100 g), vitamins such as thiamine (0.15–0.60 mg/100 g), niacin (0.89–4.6 mg/100 g), and riboflavin (0.9–0.28 mg/100 g)(Table  5 ). Millets have essential amino acids which ensure their contribution to the nutritional security of mankind upon consumption [ 70 ] (Table  6 ).

7 Health benefits of millets

Millets are called alkaline-forming foods. An alkaline-based diet is frequently prescribed for achieving optimal health, particularly when combined with digestive enzymes. The calming alkaline characteristics of millets aid in maintaining a balanced pH in the body, which is essential for preventing illnesses. Millet has many medical and nutritious functions [ 68 , 71 , 72 ]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the health-promoting properties of millets. Small millets such as kodo, foxtail, little, and barnyard are abundant sources of fibre, protein, and phytochemicals including flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which serve as potent antioxidants [ 73 , 74 ]. Little millet, Kodo millet, and pearl millet have been found to be effective at controlling blood glucose and improving lipid profiles[ 74 ]. Regular intake of millets increases serum leptin, decreases insulin resistance and inflammation due to the presence of these bioactive components[ 75 ]. The high polyphenolic content within the seed coat of finger millet decreases the chance of diabetes and cancer and the abundance of fibre supports slow digestion and helps maintain blood sugar balance[ 29 ]. Barnyard millet sprouted seeds contain more amount of astringent, acidic, emollient, and stomach properties. They are used in treating conditions such as abdominal dyspepsia, impaired digestion, and nutritional stagnation. White seeds have refrigerant properties and are employed in managing cholera and fever [ 76 ]. The consumption of proso millet with other millets reduce the risk of type two diabetes mellitus [ 77 , 78 , 79 ], as whole grains serve as a rich source of this mineral. Additionally, the incidence of migraine headaches and heart attacks can be decreased, providing benefits to individuals with atherosclerosis and heart disease [ 79 ]. Foxtail millet is an essential source of crude fiber, helps in the digestive process by stimulating bowel movement and promoting a laxative effect and leads to a balanced digestive system [ 32 ]. Proso millet protein concentrate exhibits protective effects against D-galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats [ 80 ]. Other health benefits of millets include prolonging the duration of emptying the gastric and providing roughage to the gastrointestinal tract [ 81 ].The major benefits of millets for health are listed in Table  7 .

7.1 Millets for cardiovascular disease

Various factors, such as an improper diet, stress, smoking along with other factors cause impaired circulation in the brain and problems with the heart and blood vessels. The consumption of millets is linked to numerous health advantages, including improved digestive health, enhanced weight management and a reduced risk of heart disease. Millet grains contain good quantities of magnesium, potassium, lignans, antioxidants and fibres, offering potential benefits in lowering blood pressure and heart related issues [ 87 ]. According to [ 53 ], incorporating barnyard, finger and proso millets into the diet elevated the production of adiponectin and protein by fat along and triglyceride levels in individuals with high blood lipid content. Similar effects were also observed with lipid extracts of grain sorghum and phenolic extracts of little, pearl, proso, kodo, foxtail, and finger millets which exhibited inhibitory effects on lipid peroxidation in humans i n vitro . These effects resulted in inhibition ranging from 1.0% to 41%, with kodo millet displaying superior inhibition [ 7 ]. Little millet is employed in managing diabetic and cardiovascular disorders among patients, with the aim of controlling or reducing the blood glucose response [ 88 , 89 , 90 ].

7.2 Antidiabetic properties in millets

Diabetes is prevalent among adults aged 40 and above, marked by insulin resistance and its relative insulin deficiency. The natural inhibitors of alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase play an essential role in managing postprandial hyperglycaemia and are safer than artificialagents. Small millets viz ., barnyard millet, finger millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet and little millet are abundant in fibre, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids, rendering them potent antioxidants and suitable for consumption by individuals with diabetes[ 4 ]. Research has proved that the intake of millets as whole grains is more advantageous and medically established to alleviate diabetic symptoms [ 7 , 91 ]. The finger millet based diet ensures a low glycemic index due to its alpha amylase inhibition properties coupled with high fibre content. These characteristics lead to a reduced level of digestion of starch and its absorption contributes to better glycemic control [ 90 ]. Millets demonstrate effectiveness in regulating blood sugar and lipid contents. For instance, a food additive mixture containing foxtail millet was found to glycosylate haemoglobin, decrease blood glucose, homocysteine and blood lipid, and increase insulin levels people with diabetes and to have a lipid- lowering effect in pre-diabetic individuals [ 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 ]. [ 93 ] observed similar results in mice with diabetes. The consumption of finger millet helps regulate sugar levels in blood and improves antioxidant status, thereby enhancing the recovery rate of diabetic patients from skin wounds [ 94 ]. [ 95 ] reported that millet seed coat containing phenolic compounds effectively control the glycemic index paving the way for normal glucose homeostasis. The soluble and bound fractions of some selected cultivars of foxtail millet and little millet were found to regulate blood sugar levels after a meal [ 96 ].

7.3 Anticancer activity of millets

Millet grains are abundant in phytochemicals including phytic acid which decreases cholesterol, and phytate, and reduces the possible occurence of cancer [ 97 ]. The millet phenolics present in the millets can typically prevent cancer in-vitro [ 98 ]. [ 99 ] reported such results with breast cancer. An experiment conducted by [ 100 ] revealed that proso millet derived vanillin extract suppressed the growth of HT-29 cells. A similar extract from barnyard millet significantly reduced the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. In finger millet, differential influence of free phenolic compounds and bound phenolic compounds on proliferation of breast cancer and colorectal cancer cells were observed by [ 101 ]. The anticancer properties of the phenolic substances of millets which work especially against breast cancer and colon cancer were also documented by [ 102 ].

7.4 Anti-inflammatory properties of millet

Ferulic acid helps protect cells from free radical damage as a potent antioxidant and reduces inflammation. These antioxidants protect tissues by healing wounds. The roles of antioxidants present in finger millet in healing dermal wounds in diabetic rats and modulating inflammation have been reported [ 103 ]. The presence of bio-active compounds including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and lignin in millets contributes to their ability to mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress [ 104 ]. Hence, the polyphenols present in millets served as natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, for managing certain diseases.

7.5 Millets and celiac disease

Celiac disease is immune-mediated and activated by gluten in individuals who are susceptible to this disease. Gluten-free millet is an alternative for people with celiac disease. Sensitivity to gluten, leads to irritation [ 7 , 54 ].

7.6 Antimicrobial activity of millets

In- vitro evaluations were conducted on extracts of seed protein from millets to assess their ability to control the growth of microbes such as Macrophomina phaseolina , Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum . It was concluded that all the phytopathogenic fungi were effectively suppressed by the pearl millet protein extract [ 105 ]. In addition, millets, such as sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet, have been reported to have potential antibacterial properties. Gram—negative and gram-positive bacteria ( Escherichia coli , Citrobacter freundii , Salmonella spp ., Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus sp ., Bacillus cereus and Listeria ivanovii ) [ 106 ] were effectively controlled by the ethanolic fractions of pearl millet. [ 107 ] reported the antibacterial activity of phytochemicals derived from sorghum bran against Escherichia coli  and  Staphylococcus aureus, famous foodborne pathogens.

7.7 Phytochemical properties of millets

Millet plants are resistant to many abiotic stress factors. These plants are having high amounts of micronutrients and substances such as polyphenols, phytosterols, phytoestrogens, lignins, and phytocyanins as reported by several studies [ 108 ]. The highest flavonoid content was detected in foxtail millet (7.808 mg/g) and high alkaloids in barnyard millet (2.149 mg/g) and least in finger millet (0.058 mg/g). The contents of the bound phenolic fractions were greater than those of the free phenolic fractions. A greater total anthocyanin content was recorded in the finger millet, kodo and pearl millet varieties.

7.8 Prebiotic aspects of millet dietary fibre

The quantity of phenol compounds in millets is influenced by many procedures, including dehulling and decortication, malting, fermentation, and thermal processing. The antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella dysenteriae, Enterococcus  sp.  and Salmonella sp was reported previously [ 109 ] . The microflora present in the fermented products of millets have probiotic effects [ 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 ] . Sorghum grains produce certain biochemicals [ 112 ] including phenolic acids with health-promoting properties. It reduces the incidence of diet-related noncommunicable diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.

7.9 Millets as weaning foods, health foods and enteral foods

Millets, including finger millet play crucial roles in various food applications, particularly in weaning foods, health foods, and enteral foods. Millets are often used in baby foods due to their remarkable nutritional scenario. They are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals. Finger millet, in particular, has high calcium content, which is beneficial for developing bones in infants and young children. Weaning foods made from millets provide a nutrient-dense option for transitioning infants from breastfeeding to solid foods. [ 113 ] formulated fortified instant weaning food containing essential macronutrients and micronutrients from Musa paradisiaca (banana) and Eleusine coracana which could be used for three months when stored in aluminum foil pouches.

Millets are a healthy food due to their numerous health benefits. Millets are suitable for individuals with gluten intolerance or diabetes since they are gluten-free and have a low glycemic index. Millets are also rich in antioxidants which reduce oxidative stress, heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Incorporating millets into a diet can lead to an improvement of overall health. Foxtail millet grains possess good quantity of phenols and flavonoids, which could be added to make convenient food products for instant use for fulfilling nutrient requirements and managing health disorders [ 114 ].

Millets are used in enteral nutrition formulations for individuals who cannot consume food orally and who require tube feeding. Enteral foods made from millets provide a balanced nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Millets are easily digested and well-tolerated by most individuals, making them suitable for enteral feeding in clinical settings. [ 115 ] succeeded in preparing a blended food based on sorghum, soybean and sesame seeds for tube feeding of adults. Hence, millets, including finger millet, are versatile ingredients that play important roles in weaning foods, health foods, and enteral foods. Their nutritional composition, gluten-free nature, and health benefits make them valuable additves to various food products aimed at promoting growth, health, and nutrition in infants, children, and adults.

8 Future prospects

The future of millet-based food for promoting human health appears promising. As global awareness of food choices increases, millets offer a sustainable alternative that aligns with the principles of a healthy and environmentally conscious diet. Research on millets continues to uncover new health benefits and innovative ways to incorporate millets into dining and modern diets. The collaboration between the agricultural sector, food industry and public health initiatives will be essential for harnessing the full potential of millets for human well-being.

9 Conclusions

The incorporation of millet-based food products such as protein, calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), into international, national, and state-level community feeding programs holds promise for addressing prevalent nutrient deficiencies in developing countries. The overview of the significance of millets for food and nutritional security envisages their multifaceted role in addressing global challenges. Millets are resilient crops that offer sustainable solutions for agricultural production. Their rich nutritional content makes them invaluable allies for combating malnutrition and promoting public health, especially in vulnerable communities. By integrating millets into agricultural systems, we can foster resilience against climate change and enhance food sovereignty, empowering smallholder farmers and rural communities. The resurgence of interest in millets signals a promising shift towards more diverse, nutritious, and sustainable food systems. The significance of millets is that they invite collective action from stakeholders across sectors, including policymakers, researchers, farmers, and consumers. By understanding the potential of millets, we can pave the way for a more resilient, equitable, and nourished future for all.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Sanjay Kumar, T., Nageswari, R., Somasundaram, S. et al. Significance of millets for food and nutritional security—an overview. Discov Food 4 , 73 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-024-00149-w

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Essay on Millets

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In a world where sustainability and health are becoming increasingly important, millets stand out as a group of highly versatile grains that offer a plethora of benefits. Often overshadowed by more common cereals like wheat and rice, millets are finally receiving the recognition they deserve. This essay explores millets in detail, shedding light on their types, nutritional value, environmental benefits, and their role in combating food security issues.

Millets are a group of small-seeded grasses, widely cultivated as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Unlike other grains that require extensive resources for cultivation, millets are hardy, drought-resistant, and have a short growing season. They can thrive in poor soil conditions where other crops might fail, making them an excellent choice for sustainable agriculture.

Types of Millets

There are several types of millets, each with unique characteristics. The most commonly known include:

• Pearl Millet (Bajra): The most widely grown millet, known for its high tolerance to drought, heat, and soil salinity.
• Finger Millet (Ragi): Highly revered for its nutritional content, especially calcium and iron, making it an essential grain for bone health and blood circulation.
• Foxtail Millet (Kangni): Rich in carbohydrates and dietary fiber, it is ideal for energy and digestion.
• Sorghum (Jowar): Known for its gluten-free properties, it is a great alternative for those with gluten intolerance.
• Barnyard Millet (Jhangora): Offers the highest fiber content, excellent for weight management and blood sugar control.

Nutritional Benefits

Millets are a powerhouse of nutrition, offering a wide range of essential vitamins and minerals. They are rich in dietary fiber, which aids in digestion and prevents constipation. Millets are an excellent source of protein, making them a crucial part of vegetarian diets. They contain essential amino acids, which are vital for body repair and growth. Millets are also rich in antioxidants, which help in fighting free radicals and reducing inflammation. Their low glycemic index makes them suitable for people with diabetes, as they help in controlling blood sugar levels.

Environmental Benefits

Millets are environmentally friendly crops. They require significantly less water compared to traditional grains like rice and wheat, making them an ideal choice for arid regions. Their resilience to harsh weather conditions reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, leading to more sustainable farming practices. Cultivating millets can play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, as they are often grown in mixed-cropping systems, which help in maintaining soil fertility and health.

Role in Combating Food Security

Food security is a growing concern worldwide, with climate change and population growth posing significant challenges. Millets offer a sustainable solution to this problem. Their ability to adapt to various environmental conditions makes them a reliable food source in areas prone to drought and poor soil quality. By incorporating millets into the global food system, we can diversify our food sources and reduce dependency on a few major cereals, thereby enhancing food security.

Culinary Uses

Millets are incredibly versatile in the kitchen. They can be used to make a variety of dishes, from traditional porridges and bread to modern salads and desserts. Millets can be ground into flour for gluten-free baking or popped like popcorn for a healthy snack. Their mild, nutty flavor complements both sweet and savory dishes, making them a favorite among chefs and home cooks looking to explore alternative grains.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite their numerous benefits, millets face challenges in terms of global recognition and acceptance. There is a need for increased awareness about their nutritional and environmental benefits. Governments and agricultural organizations are working towards promoting millets through policy support and research. The United Nations declaring 2023 as the International Year of Millets is a significant step towards this goal, aiming to boost millet production and consumption worldwide.

In conclusion, Millets are not just grains of the past but are crucial for our future. Their remarkable nutritional profile, environmental resilience, and versatility make them an essential component of sustainable agriculture and a healthier diet. By embracing millets, we can take a significant step towards achieving food security, environmental sustainability, and improved health. As we look towards a future where resources are scarce, and the population is growing, millets offer a beacon of hope, promising a balanced approach to agriculture and nutrition. Let us recognize and celebrate the potential of these super grains, for they hold the key to a sustainable and healthy world.

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The nutrition and therapeutic potential of millets: an updated narrative review.

• 1 ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad, India
• 2 Division of Biochemistry, ICAR-Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, India
• 3 National Institute of Indian Medical Heritage, Hyderabad, India
• 4 SIES College of Arts, Science and Commerce, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, India

Millets are ancient small grains grown in arid and semiarid regions of the world. They are staple food for many people in Asia and Africa. They are abundant sources of minerals and vitamins, giving them the name Nutricereals. Moreover, millets contain valuable phytochemicals that impart therapeutic properties for various disorders and diseases, thus giving them nutraceutical value. A wide array of biochemical compounds are present in the plant parts as well as the grains. In the oldest texts of medicine in India and China, millets are mentioned for use for their medicinal value. There has been expanding interest and emerging facts about millets and their therapeutic uses. Ample evidence shows that consumption of millets amounts to correction of life style and metabolic disorders. Therapeutic properties of millets can be viewed in two ways, supplementary nutrition through minerals and vitamins, and therapeutic value through the presence of phytochemicals and specialty compounds that include flavonoids, phenolics, anthocyanidins and others that have antioxidant potential. Millets are gluten free, have low glycemic index and the phytochemicals aid in correction of lifestyle disorders and prevention of ailments like carcinogenesis. Supplementary benefits include treatment of anemia and calcium deficiency especially for pregnant women and young children. With the improvements in analytical methods for detection of various compounds, it is possible to identify the compound-specific genotypes in millets that can cater to the pharmacy industry. End-use specific genotypes can be bred to meet the demand. Millets being climate resilient, can contribute to a healthier life and better world through economic usage of natural resources.

1 Introduction

Millets are small-grained multipurpose cereals and impart medicinal value by virtue of the presence of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds that aid in the recovery and well-being of human health. Due to their high nutritional value, these archeological staples are also called nutricereals. Millets comprise major millets (sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet) and minor millets (foxtail millet, little millet, kodo millet, proso millet, brown top millet, fonio, teff, and barnyard millet) ( Figure 1 ). Major millets can be used directly after harvest and cleaning, while the minor millets need primary processing for gentle removal of the outer layers of grain that also contain many antioxidants. There has been a steep increase in awareness of the nutritional benefits of millets, thus increasing the demand for millets as food and value-added products ( 1 ). Millets contain about 65–75% carbohydrates, 7–12% proteins, 2–5% fat, and 8–15% fiber. They have a higher content of essential amino acids compared to conventional cereals and prolamin in millets increases the digestibility of proteins. While the nutritional advantages of millets have been realized through knowledge sharing in recent times, the therapeutic value of millets needs attention. There is robust scientific evidence to suggest that consumption of millets reduces the progression of prediabetes, results in better glycemic control, reduces body mass index (BMI), and mitigates atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk ( 2 ). High resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) in millets, causes lower postprandial glucose and insulin excursions ( 3 ). Millets are gluten free and are the choice diet for celiac patients. Due to their nutritional value millets are picking up market for weaning as well as conscious foods. Phytochemicals like proanthocyanidins present in the grain and bran of the millets possess anti-obesity effects by inducing satiety. Millet foods and products for health, prevention and therapy are known from ancient times, yet are to be expanded worldwide. In this review, we enumerate the different medicinal and therapeutic properties of millets in preventing and curing the lifestyle disorders, specific diseases and ailments along with the history of millets in traditional medicine.

Figure 1. Panicles of different millets.

2 Millets in ancient texts and scriptures and traditional medicine

The history of millets dates to the history of the grasses and humanity even before man began his settled life and he was a hunter-gatherer. Research reveals that millets were consumed in the Indus valley civilization, flourishing from 3,300 to 1,300 BC. Millets were cultivated as summer crops along with rice and tropical pulses at early settlements inside and outside the Indus zone, which is the evidence for millet consumption in the pre-Vedic period (before 1700 BC) ( 4 ). The Harappans used millets and being drought resistant, they were cultivated in the peripheral region due to the fall in monsoons. Finger millet, sorghum, pearl millet along with little millet and foxtail millet, were found to dominate the cultivation during the mature and late Harappan period ( 5 , 6 ). Their studies prove that early inhabitants of the Gangetic plain from the 3rd millennium BC to the 2nd century BC cultivated rice, wheat, and African and indigenous millet varieties. Vedas are considered the oldest repositories of knowledge, and millets are mentioned in various instances ( 7 ). The Indian scriptures, the Puranas , also mention the names of various wild and cultivated millets used for rituals and as food and fodder ( 8 ). The use of millets like thinai (foxtail millet) was famous in many dishes during the Chola era (9 th century). Sorghum is used in the marriage rituals of Telangana state of India till today.

Ayurveda is the ancient science of medicine in India and a variety of millets are mentioned, and their qualities are detailed in all treatises of the Ayurvedic system of medicine, which flourished during the Samhita period (450 BC- 400 AD) and Sangraha period (400–700 AD). As per Charaka Samhita, a prominent treatise of Ayurveda , millets are said to be kashaya (astringent) and madhura (sweet) in taste, light in digestion, aggravating vāta , and pacifying kapha and pitta . Many Nighantus (encyclopedic lexicons) in Ayurveda have referred to millets as sweet and astringent in taste but pungent in effect after digestion. The yellow variety of foxtail millet is described as the best among millets in the Ayurvedic writings. It is also considered good for fracture healing and stoutening ( 9 ). Repeatedly, kodrava (kodo millet) is mentioned as visahara (alleviating poison) by Kaiyadeva Nighantu and Dhanvantari Nighantu. It is also advised to be good for healing ulcers. However, the excessive consumption of kodrava (kodo millet) and uddālaka (vanakodrava , wild Kodo millet ) is said to cause raktapitta (bleeding disorders) in Garuda Purana ( 10 ).

In China, millets are considered a sacred crop. The leader of the Shang Dynasty in the 2 nd millennium BC was known as Hou Chi ‘The ruler of Millet.’ In traditional Chinese medicine, millet is mentioned as cooling and diuretic, strengthens kidney energy and builds yin fluids, moistens dryness. Thus, making them perfect food to consume during the summer months, and in preparation for the autumn. Archaeobotanical analysis of plant remains found in five pottery model granaries in burial sites in China proves that foxtail and common (proso) millet were cultivated on a larger scale than wheat or other cereals. Millet-based multi-crop farming dominated China’s regional agricultural system during the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 8) ( 11 ). Foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) and broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ) were traditionally the most important cereals cultivated in North China and were first identified at 7,000-year-old Neolithic sites ( 12 ).

Millets have traveled throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa, where it became a staple and typical food of the Sumerian diet at about 2500 BC. The Hebrew bible makes mention of humble millet. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to have included millet among their treasured plants. It was pointed out in the Bible that millets were used to prepare bread. Panicum colonum (a wild ancestor of Sawa millet, barnyard millet), was found in the Egyptian tombs of mummies of the Junstein Age ( 13 ).

3 Nutritional profile of millets and their potential as nutrient supplementation

Millets stand out among cereals due to their high levels of dietary fiber, antioxidants, and proteins. Millet grains primarily consist of carbohydrates with varying amounts of proteins, fats, and dietary fiber ( Table 1 ). Carbohydrates are the largest fraction of the total grain weight, with variations among different millet types ( 14 ). Starch is the major carbohydrate in the grains and controls millets digestion and glycemic response. Grain starch consists of amylose and amylopectin along with dietary fibers and meager levels of free sugars like glucose and sucrose ( 15 ). Protein content ranges from 6 to 13%, proso millet and foxtail millet being the richest sources ( Table 1 ). Millet proteins have a relatively high content of essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and cysteine, which are limited in other cereal grains like rice and wheat ( 16 ). Millet grains contain moderate levels of fats, typically ranging from 2 to 8% of the grain weight, pearl millet being the richest. Millet fats are composed of unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid and oleic acid, contributing to nutritional value and health benefits ( 17 , 18 ). Quantity of dietary fiber in millet is almost double that in rice and comparable to whole wheat. Dietary fiber in millets consists of both soluble and insoluble fractions ( Table 2 ); the soluble fibers, including β-glucans, arabinoxylans, and pectins; and insoluble fibers, such as cellulose and hemicellulose ( 19 ). Pearl millet and finger millet are prominent sources of dietary fiber. Millets are also rich in micronutrients like calcium (10–348 mg/100 g), iron (2.2–17.7 mg/100 g), zinc (0.4 –2.8 mg/100 g), and phosphorus (189–293 mg/100 g), vitamins such as thiamine (0.15–0.60 mg/100 g), niacin (0.89–4.6 mg/100 g), and riboflavin (0.9–0.28 mg/100 g) ( Table 1 ) ( 16 , 20 – 22 ). Pearl millet has the highest iron content of 5–6.5 mg/100g. Finger millet is one of the richest vegetarian sources of Calcium (300–350 mg/100g), which is almost 10 times that in wheat. Secondary metabolites in millets are phenolics (phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins), phytosterols, and policosanols that serve as antioxidants and minimize free radical damage to the body. The B group of vitamins, thiamine and riboflavin, are rich in millets compared to wheat and rice ( Table 1 ). Sorghum grain is a rich source of micro and macro nutrients offering potential health and therapeutic benefits ( 23 ).

Table 1. Nutritional composition of 8 different types of millets in comparison to rice and wheat/100 gm.

Table 2. Dietary Fiber composition of eight different types of millets.

Consumption of millets helps in preventing the metabolic disorders and in correction of life style disorders. Since these are administered as food it becomes easy for consumption and the bioavailability will be more. Diet based trials with millet supplementation have shown encouraging results on health and performance. Trials on supplementation of diet with millets have been promising, showing improvement in health and performance including anemia ( 24 ). Regular supplementation of multi-millet health mix (kodo millet, little millet, foxtail millet, finger millet, and wheat with the inclusion of pulses) to primary school children in India showed a positive effect in increasing the anthropometric indices ( 25 ). Khader and Maheswari ( 26 ) found that there was significant increase in weight of preschool children after supplementation of amylase-rich malted millet mixes for the period of 4 months. A randomized clinical trial program through food based approach using pearl millet ladoo (Indian sweet) showed a significant rise in mean hemoglobin (Hb) levels of adolescent girls ( 27 ). Dietary supplementation of adolescent school girls with finger millet porridge improved hemoglobin levels ( 28 ).

4 Role of millets in correcting diseases and lifestyle disorders

Malnutrition prevails in many countries and estimates by WHO indicate that 22.3% of all children under 5 years globally are stunted ( 29 ). At the same time, obesity and NCDs (non-communicable diseases) are on the rise. As per WHO, NCDs kill around 41 million people globally of which cardiovascular diseases account for the maximum number of deaths (17.9 million) followed by cancers (9.3 million) and diabetes (2 million) ( 30 ). About 16% of adults aged 18 years and older worldwide are obese and the worldwide prevalence of obesity in adults as well as children has more than doubled over the last three decades ( 31 ). Among NCDs diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and cancer stand at the top, the others include gut health impairment, obesity, thyroid dysfunction etc. As per WHO estimates NCDs are responsible for almost 74% of all deaths globally.

4.1 Effect of millets on type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)

Diabetes is a worldwide epidemic and the disease is characterized by rising levels of blood sugar content due to reduced insulin action or an absolute lack of it. Millets are ideal food for regulating diabetes and the underlying mechanisms have been reported by many. Hypoglycemic effect of millets is associated with proportion of low digestible starch fractions ( 3 ), potency of phenolics in limiting carbohydrate digestion ( 32 ), ability to reduce the reactive oxygen species (ROS), increase in the abundance of probiotic bacteria, activation and /or inhibition enzymes and regulate various signaling pathways ( 33 – 35 ). Phenolic compounds in millets regulate the oxidative stress in the cells and protect the pancreatic β cells. β-glucan isolated from Eleusine coracana seeds, Ec-βG was found to be an active inhibitor for α- amylase and α-glucosidase that demonstrated antidiabetic activity ( 36 ). Phenolics from sorghum and finger millet have inhibitory effects on starch-digesting enzymes like salivary and pancreatic α-amylases and α-glucosidase, which effectively reduce post-prandial blood glucose levels ( 37 – 39 ). Polyphenol-enriched extract from pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ) inhibits key enzymes involved in postprandial hyperglycemia (α-amylase, α-glucosidase) and regulates hepatic glucose uptake ( 32 ). Phenolic compounds impart antiglycation activities and prevent the formation of advanced glycation end (AGE) products. p -coumaric and chlorogenic acids found abundantly in barnyard millet caused a significant decrease in advanced glycation end-products and protected against glycoxidation-induced protein conformational changes ( 40 ).

Detailed studies in rat and mice models show that feeding diabetic rats with kodo and finger millet-based diets reduced blood glucose levels ( 41 ). Glycemic and oxidative stress was reduced as indicated by low levels of lipid peroxidation in millet-fed rats when compared to control rats through the inhibition of glycation of tail-end collagen. Hypoglycemic effect of ethanolic extract of sorghum and foxtail millet in diabetic rats was via inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis and was like anti-diabetic medication ( 42 , 43 ). Supplementation of millet-based diet preparations lowered glycemic response in diabetic rat models mainly owing to the i) high dietary fiber content ( 2 ), ii) presence of peptides ( 44 ) and iii) starch ( 45 ). Foxtail millet starch and protein components alleviated impaired glucose tolerance and abnormal lipid contents and improved glucose metabolism in diabetic rats ( 46 ). Japanese barnyard millet protein showed ameliorative activity in diabetic mice ( 47 ). Barnyard millet bran-based diet reduced diabetic polyuria, water intake, and HbA1c levels in diabetic rats ( 48 ).

Foxtail millet prolamin supplementation improved glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in diabetic mice, improved liver function impairment and modulated serum metabolic profiles, especially of retinol and riboflavin metabolism ( 49 ). Whole grain proso millet diet improved glucose tolerance, liver and kidney injury, and insulin resistance in diabetic mice through modulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway through miRNA regulation ( 50 ). Protein isolates from raw and cooked foxtail millet improved and altered diabetes-induced gut dysbiosis ( 51 ). Further in vitro studies indicated that prolamins from foxtail millet exhibited α-amylase inhibiting properties in raw as well as cooked form and cooked prolamins had a superior effect ( 44 ). Millet dietary fiber reduces glycemic reactions through changed lipid metabolism, altered bile acid metabolism, and glucose level improvement ( 52 ).

Millets were effective in curing diabetes-associated complications such as cataracts, dermal wounds, fatty liver, etc. Finger millet-fed diabetic rats exhibited hastened dermal wound healing ( 53 ). through altered activities of antioxidant enzymes, enhanced expression of nerve growth factor (NGF), increased synthesis of collagen, and activation of fibroblasts and mast cells. Finger millet seed phenolics delayed cataract genesis in diabetic rats by lowering the activity of lens aldose reductase (AR), serum advanced glycation end products and blood glycosylated Hb levels ( 39 , 54 ).

Starch and protein components in foxtail millet significantly increased Lactobacillus species, reduced gut microbiota dysbiosis caused by diabetes, thus alleviating hyperglycemia, and liver dysfunction in diabetic mice. Foxtail millet alleviated non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)-related gut microbiota dysgenesis, a diabetes-associated complication, in a mice model fed on a high-fat diet ( 46 ). By putting genetically type 2 diabetic KK-Ay mice on a Korean foxtail millet protein diet, insulin levels decreased greatly, and insulin sensitivity was improved through adiponectin intervention ( 55 ).

Clinical trials indicated that increased consumption of foxtail millet reduced mean fasting blood glucose levels and mean 2 h-glucose levels. There was a significant increase in blood leptin (‘leptin’ is a key appetite-regulating hormone that normalizes hyperglycemia), insulin resistance reduction, and marginal reduction in inflammation ( 33 ). Increasing the intake of a millet-based diet in patients with T2DM improved glycemic control, decreased hyperinsulinemia, and lowered plasma lipid concentrations ( 56 ). Consumption of fermented and germinated foxtail millet alleviated diabetic kidney disease, another complication of prolonged diabetes ( 57 ). Regular consumption of millets by humans translates into better post-prandial blood glucose and better HbA1c levels ( 2 , 58 ). Millet (foxtail millet, finger millet, sorghum) diet regulated the glucose level in the diabetic patients better than the non-millet diet ( 59 ). Breakfast consumption trial of Pearl millet porridge (PMP) and popular Scottish oats porridge (SOP) showed that responses of both were comparable, but PMP had a larger iAUC (incremental area under the curve) for gastric volume and a lower GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide) responses compared to SOP ( 60 ).

4.2 Millets for cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death globally as per WHO. Millets consist of higher sterols and pinacosanols, which prevent cholesterol synthesis. It has been demonstrated in animal study that sorghum fed hamsters have lower non HDL cholesterol ( 61 ). Yin et al. ( 62 ) reported the positive effect of millet bran oil (MBO) and refined millet bran oil (MRO) consumption on lipid metabolism in obese mice. MBO reduced lipid accumulation in the liver, brown and white fat hypertrophy and dyslipidemia. It also decreased hepatic lipid peroxidation, the plasma oxidative stress, and hepatic oxidative stress, and increased the abundance of some benign bacteria, including Akkermansia and Prevotellaceae . Phenolic extract of kodo millet was effective in inhibiting the oxidation of LDL cholesterol and liposome ( 63 ). Sorghum has a high level of fiber in the diet and it decreases cholesterol uptake, binding bile acids in the small intestine and preventing them from entering the blood-stream, which is helpful for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, and stroke ( 64 ). Results from different i n vitro and animal studies indicated that the lipidic and phenolic fractions from sorghum modulate parameters related to dyslipidemia and the risk of cardiovascular disease, which resulted from the action of phytosterols, policosanols and phenolic compounds. Studies have shown that grain sorghum lipids and the co-product, DDGS (Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles) were able to promote cardiovascular health by reducing both plasma low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and liver cholesterol levels at different dosage levels ( 65 ). Millets mitigate atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk by lowering insulin resistance, better glycemic control, lowering non-high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and lowering BP ( 66 , 67 ).

4.3 Anti-hypertensive properties of millets

High blood pressure is a major health problem of the current generation and is reaching epidemic proportions. It is a serious illness if left undetected and untreated. Dietary interventions are recommended to alleviate the issue. Studies support that, millets, being a good source of hypotensive components such as dietary fiber, protein, minerals, and other phytochemicals, are a promising diet for hypertensive individuals. Consumption of foxtail millet protein hydrolysates was found to ameliorate hypertension and alleviate related cardiovascular diseases in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Activity of serum ACE (Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme), a crucial enzyme in the process of hypertension, and angiotensin II levels were significantly lower in the treated rats ( 68 ). Finger millet ethanol extracts were also found to cause antihypertensive effects in rats ( 69 ) by controlling the renin-angiotensin system. In silico studies indicated that foxtail millet bran glutelin-2 peptide fractions are potential natural ACE inhibitors ( 70 ). An isolate of sorghum α-kafirins was reported to inhibit the activity of the angiotensin I converting enzyme ( 71 ) to reduce blood pressure. Significant reductions were observed in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure values with whole foxtail millets diet in mild hypertensive patients ( 72 ).

4.4 Millets for thyroid gland function and combating obesity

Manganese is essential for thyroid hormone homeostasis and sorghum is its rich source, which helps in proper regulation of the thyroid gland promoting weight loss through regulating fat metabolism ( 64 ). Sorghum grain starch has 1.2-fold higher amylose than other fine cereals, and this resistant starch is advantageous for obese and diabetic people. Sorghum rich in tannins was reported to reduce weight gain in animals ( 73 , 74 ) attributed to formation of complexes with starch, which helps to lower caloric intake. Polymeric tannins from sorghum naturally modify starch by interacting strongly with amylose forming resistant starch, which cannot be digested in the small intestine and thus reaches the large intestine, delivering the health benefits of dietary fiber ( 75 ).

4.5 Effect of millets on gut microbiome

Integrating millet into the diet improves both gut health and overall nutrition. Dietary fiber component in millet comprises 15–20% and contains non-starchy polysaccharides, arabinoxylan, and β-glucan ( 76 ). Insoluble fibers, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, add bulk to the stool and aid in regular bowel movements ( 19 ). Soluble fibers, including beta-glucans, arabinoxylans, and pectins, have gel-forming properties and exert various physiological effects. They exhibited gel-forming properties by absorbing water and thus increasing food viscosity, inhibiting macronutrient absorption, lowering dyslipidemia and the postprandial glucose response. It could be metabolized by the gut microflora ( Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium ) during colonic fermentation to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Soluble dietary fibers reduce bile acid absorption in the small intestine (ileum) and increase bile acid excretion, resulting in enhanced hepatic bile production utilizing intracellular cholesterol and lowering blood cholesterol levels. Insoluble dietary fibers, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, are more susceptible to colonic fermentation by the gut microbiota and have a beneficial effect on insulin sensitivity. Insoluble fibers remove toxins from the digestive system, improve the fecal volume and intestinal transit by enhancing water-holding capacity ( 77 , 78 ). Prebiotic-resistant starch, which is resistant to enzymatic digestion, increases the proportion of beneficial microorganisms such as probiotic Bifidobacterium , Lactobacillus , and Akkermansia ( 79 ). Finger millet is high in microbiota-accessible dietary fiber, and implicated in the anti-diabetic and anti-obesity properties ( 2 , 79 ).

The millet bran fraction has a significant amount of dietary fiber, that is not easily digestible. As a result, removing the bran portion during decortication/dehulling leads to a significant reduction in the fiber component ( Figure 2 ). It is reported that dehulling millet grains over 30% leads to significant loss of nutritional fiber ( 80 ). Because most millets are consumed in their decorticated condition, it is critical to manage the degree of dehulling in order to optimize fiber content. Effect of milling on the fiber components of foxtail millet showed that the insoluble dietary fiber was low in the milled fraction than that of whole millet flour., whereas the fiber content of foxtail millet increased significantly with increasing germination time. ( 81 , 82 ).

Figure 2. Hulled and unhulled grains of small millets.

Digestibility of millet fibers varies with type of fiber, processing methods, and individual variations in gut microbiota. Processing alters the structure of fibers and impacts their digestibility and bioavailability. Fermentation process breaks down soluble fibers into smaller compounds, which are then absorbed by the colon cells and utilized for energy. However, the extent of fermentation and digestibility may differ between individuals due to variations in gut microbiota composition. Insoluble fibers can provide benefits by aiding in proper gut transit and promoting overall digestive health ( 83 ).

Dietary fibers can be prebiotic by nature if they are metabolized in the colon by the gut microbiota, to produce different SCFA such as acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid ( 84 ). Gut microbiota hydrolyse non-digestible food fiber from millets into component monosaccharides in colonic fermentation using a unique set of enzymes not found in humans. These hydrolysed monosaccharides are then used by bacteria to produce various SCFAs via various routes. SCFAs reduce gut permeability from the gut lumen to colonic tissues and the liver ( 85 ), function as signaling molecules, to induce satiety, stimulate insulin secretion and lower glucose levels. SCFA-activated GPRs reduce colonic inflammation because butyric acid promotes mucosal healing by increasing epithelial cell migration ( 86 , 87 ). SCFAs take part in metabolic activities, notably butyric acid, which is used by gut colonocyte cells to make the gut environment completely anaerobic, limiting the quantity and proliferation of potentially dangerous microorganisms like E. coli and Salmonella ( 88 ). Animal studies in acutely malnourished pigs showed that millet-based supplement restored the gut microbial diversity ( 89 ) and harmful bacteria, have decreased ( 90 ).

Consumption and subsequent fermentation of finger millet increased the abundance of Pediococcus and decreased the abundance of pathogenic bacteria ( 91 ). Furthermore, the production of SCFAs through millet fiber fermentation has been linked to reduced risk of metabolic disorders, such as obesity and T2DM ( 92 ). Regular consumption of millet fibers has been linked to improved gastrointestinal function, enhanced nutrient absorption, and reduced risk of various digestive disorders ( 93 ). High-fiber diets of millets are associated with a decreased risk of developing colorectal cancer ( 94 ). Foxtail millet consumption was found to lower colonic inflammation and the risk of AOM/DSS-induced colitis-associated CRC in rats. The regulatory effects were mediated by foxtail millet microbial metabolites activating aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) and inhibiting STAT3 phosphorylation ( 95 ).

Millet is considered a good source of dietary fiber, with different types of millet varying in their fiber content. It is important to note that the recommended daily intake should be achieved through a balanced diet that includes a variety of fiber-rich foods, rather than relying solely on millet fibers. While many individuals can tolerate and benefit from increased fiber intake, some may experience gastrointestinal discomfort or changes in bowel movements when significantly increasing their fiber intake. It is advisable to gradually increase fiber intake over time and ensure adequate fluid consumption to help prevent potential gastrointestinal discomfort. Additionally, individuals with specific health conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), may need to consult with a healthcare professional for personalized guidance on fiber intake ( 96 ).

4.5.1 Effect of millets on gut-brain axis induced satiety

Gut-brain axis is a bidirectional communication pathway connecting the gut and the brain. Emerging research suggests that the gut microbiota, which is influenced by dietary factors including fiber intake, plays a crucial role in modulating brain function and mental health. Millets, rich in dietary fiber, impact mood, cognition, and behavior. Gut microbiota communicate with the central nervous system through the immune system, the vagus nerve, and the production of neuroactive compounds. They produce a wide range of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which can influence brain function and behavior ( 97 ). Butyrate produced by fermentation in the intestine can cross the blood-brain barrier and exert neuroprotective effects, promoting brain health and potentially influencing mood and behavior ( 98 ). Pre-clinical and clinical studies are exploring the therapeutic potential of dietary fiber interventions, including millet fibers, in conditions such as depression, anxiety, and neurodegenerative disorders. While the precise mechanisms underlying the effects of millet fibers on mental health are still being elucidated, the promotion of a diverse and balanced gut microbiota through fiber-rich diets is considered beneficial for overall brain health and mental well-being.

4.6 Effect of millets on colon health

Peptic ulcer disease also known as gastric ulcers, is a common disorder of the gastrointestinal system, causing gastric mucosal injuries due to an imbalance between the defensive and the aggressive factors affecting the mucous. Millet is reported to be protecting the gastric mucosa against ulceration. Foxtail millet has long been used to treat vacuity heat of the spleen and stomach, stomach reflux vomiting and reduced food intake with abdominal distention, in traditional Chinese medicine ( 99 ). Bound polyphenols of the inner shell from foxtail millet bran displayed anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-induced HT- 29 cells and in nude mice ( 100 ). Foxtail millet has antiulcer activity through suppressed levels of plasma and mucosal TBARS (Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) and increased gastric non-protein sulfhydryl (NPSH) digestive enzyme activities ( 100 ). Foxtail millet protein reduced gastric ulcers in mouse models through a down-regulation of inflammatory cytokine expression in gastric tissue and improved oxidative status ( 101 ).

Pretreatment with millet diets significantly prevented gastric mucosal lesion development in ulcerated rats through the depletion of NPSH levels ( 102 ). Millet diets promote ulcer protection by decrease in ulcer index, TBARS values, and increased NPSH concentrations. Foxtail millet diet showed preventive and gastroprotective effects in experimental gastric mucosal lesions in rats protecting against the development of acute gastric mucosal injury, the anti-ulcer response and extensive antioxidant effect. Heat-treated foxtail millet could alleviate the NAFLD effects effectively through the reduction of hepatic total cholesterol and triglyceride contents and by reducing NAFLD-related gut microbiota dysbiosis ( 46 ).

4.7 Anticancer effects of millets

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. Due to their antioxidant property, millets are considered to halt the degenerative process in the body and prevent carcinogenesis. Kodo millet phenolic extracts rich in ferulic and p -coumaric acids were effective in inhibiting hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals and the proliferation of HT-29 cells (human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line), which was by 75–100% inhibited by the same ( 63 ). Foxtail millet extracts from two varieties Jingu28 and Jingu34, could potentially inhibit the growth of human breast (MDA) and liver cancer (HepG2) cells in culture ( 103 ). Foxtail millet bran-derived bound polyphenol (BPIS) showed apoptosis in human colorectal cancer HCT-116 cells and in HCT-116-bearing nude mice through enhanced ROS production ( 104 ). BPIS induced ROS generation in HCT-116 cells followed by ROS-triggered apoptosis. A peroxidase enzyme from foxtail millet bran was found to inhibit cell migration in human colon cancer cells through antagonizing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) via STAT3 signaling pathways ( 100 ). BPIS showed antiproliferative activity in the colon cancer cell line, HT-29, by upregulating miR-149 expression and inhibiting tumor aerobic glycolysis ( 105 ).

Bioactive compounds like vanillin extracted from proso and barnyard millets inhibited the cell proliferation and apoptosis induction in colon cancer cell lines ( 106 , 107 ). Bran of certain sorghum lines (especially black sorghum) has up to 10 mg/g 3-deoxyanthocyanidins ( 108 ). This compound showed strong anti-proliferative activities when tested against various human cancer cell lines and its potential was comparable to that of quercetin, one of the most potent antioxidant molecules ( 109 – 111 ).

4.8 Millets in allerginicity treatment

Celiac is a disease that damages the small intestine and interferes with the absorption of nutrients from food. Grains like wheat, barley and rye contain gluten proteins, which cause an immunological reaction in susceptible individuals with celiac disease. This response results in the production of autoantibodies and the small intestine’s villi being destroyed causing nutritional malabsorption and other autoimmune illnesses. People from this disease cannot tolerate gluten. Millets are gluten-free and non-allergenic; a great grain for individuals with celiac disease and gluten sensitivity. In vitro and in vivo tests using sorghum-derived food products, did not cause any gastrointestinal or non-gastrointestinal symptoms demonstrating the safety of gluten free sorghum for patients with celiac disease ( 112 ). Immunochemical assays also proved the absence of toxic gliadin-like protein in sorghum and confirmed the safety of sorghum-based foods for celiac patients ( 113 ). Introduction of gluten-free breads and other baked products in the diet for celiac patients through millet intervention is recommended ( 114 ).

5 Other diseases

Overproduction or under-excretion of uric acid leads to the elevated serum uric acid, known as hyperuricemia, resulting in numerous diseases in humans. New drug-like molecules from millets as luteolin is a natural source to prevent and treat hyperuricemia and related diseases ( 115 ). Polyphenols have demonstrated potential anti-Alzheimer’s disease effects in cellular and animal studies. Complex mixtures of polyphenols in sorghum grain extracts, such as 3-deoxyanthocyanidins (DXA) have the potential to inhibit neurotoxic aggregation to prevent and treat Alzheimer’s disease ( 116 ). Millets have also demonstrated neuroprotective effects in Parkinson’s disease and other cognitive disorders ( 117 ).

6 Millets as functional foods

Functional foods offer health benefits that extend beyond their nutritional value and contain supplements or other additional ingredients. Millets are fortified with vitamins, minerals, probiotics and fiber. Besides primary nutrients, what makes millets therapeutic is the presence of phenolic compounds, which are the predominant form of secondary metabolites ( Table 3 ). These are phytosterols, lignins, polyphenols, phytocyanins, and phytoestrogens. These compounds act as antioxidants thereby preventing damage to cellular membranes or genetic material within the cell. A number of health-promoting and protective properties have been attributed to millet phenolics and they were found to offer benefits like antimicrobial, immuno-modulatory, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer, antiplatelet aggregation, and inhibitory activities on cataract formation and digestive enzymes ( 118 , 119 ). Polyphenols are found in the free as well as bound forms. Bound polyphenols have multiple biological activities including antioxidant, antitumor, immunomodulation, antifungal and anti-hyperglycemia effects ( 120 ). Hulls are richer sources of total phenolic contents (TPC) and dehulling was found to reduce the antioxidant properties of millet grains ( 121 ). Millet phenolics ( 40 ) protect oxidative DNA damage and hydroxyl radical-induced protein fragmentation, inhibit protein glycation, and reduce the formation of protein aggregates. Phenolic extracts of kodo and finger millet were highly effective (97%) against peroxyl-mediated DNA scission among millets ( 122 ). Grain (crude) extracts of kodo and finger millet are superior in TPC (total phenolic content) and TFC (Total flavonoid content) among millets and they inhibited collagen cross-linking and glycation ( 123 ). Chethan et al. ( 124 ) identified nine phenolic acids which included gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, trans-cinnamic acid, and p-coumaric acid in millets. On the other hand, Chandrasekara and Shahidi ( 125 ) found that hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives were the main contributors to the total phenolic compounds of insoluble-bound phenolic fraction of millet varieties. However, in another study by Xiang et al. ( 126 ), flavonoids were found to be the predominant phenolic compounds in different millet varieties, whereas Sharma et al. ( 127 ) reported higher amounts of phenolic content and antioxidant activity in methanolic extracts of kodo millet grains. It is, however, important to realize that different analysis methods also affect the total phenolic compound contents of plants.

Table 3. Important grain phytochemicals identified in millets.

Grain sorghum whole kernel oil (phytosterol rich oil or policosanol rich wax) is found to serve as a possible heart health ingredient in functional foods ( 128 ). Jobelyn is a traditional herbal preparation based on Sorghum bicolor leaf sheath SBLS in west Africa and it is available online in the form of capsules. This standardized dried powder is a unique combination of phytochemicals that target the management of HIV-AIDS, chronic inflammatory conditions and anemia ( 129 ). Jobelyn is rich in carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, iron, natural vitamins like B12 and vitamin C. It also contains Selenium, Omega 3,6 and 9 and other essential elements and fatty acids. 1

All these research points toward the immense potential that millets have to be explored as nutraceuticals. Still there is a need for more, systematic in vitro , and in vivo investigations to demonstrate the health-promoting effects of millets and identifying the bio-active molecules associated with these effects. There is scope for exploring plant parts other than grains for their phytochemical properties as dietary supplements while bioefficacy and efficient delivery systems need attention. Millets as a potential source of nutraceuticals is indeed a big leap toward our goal of ensuring nutritional security for all.

7 Future research directions

Research and reports on the therapeutic applications are available in foxtail millet and sorghum to a greater extent, while finger millet and pearl millet are moderately explored. Proso millet and barnyard millet are researched to a lesser extent on medicinal value. The other small millets like little millet, kodo millet, barnyard millet, brown top millet and fonio need more attention. Brown top and proso millet are rich in protein; kodo millet has more bioactive compounds. Breeding programs on increasing the productivity of millets as food selectively opt for high yield, but breeding programs aiming for improvement of specialty compounds coupled with good yield can be taken up for developing varieties with high nutrient content having good medicinal value in view of the alarming rise of disorders Millets exhibit great diversity for grain quality traits, a promise to breed for specific end-use products. For example, in sorghum, many germplasm lines and parents with high total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were identified ( 130 ) that can be used in the breeding program for targeting improvement of nutraceutical properties to support food processing and value addition efforts in sorghum. In order to get outstanding recombinants in segregating generations, the parents of the hybrids must be good general combiners for the characters to which improvement is sought. To obtain superior hybrids with high grain quality and high grain yield traits either of the parents should be a good combiner for quality and yield traits, or the parents should complement each other for combining ability of the traits. Breeding procedures, which can exploit both additive and non-additive gene actions like biparental mating will help in combining the desirable yield and quality traits in millets. In pearl millet, enormous genetic variability is available for iron and zinc (30–140 mg/kg Fe and 20–90 mg/kg Zn), which was used efficiently for developing high-yielding cultivars with high iron and zinc. The world’s first biofortified pearl millet variety, the Dhanashakti was developed by utilizing the intra-population variability within ICTP 8203, which is an early-maturing, large-seeded and high-yielding open-pollinated variety that has been under cultivation in India since 1990. Nutritional quality traits for Fe (42 ppm) and Zn (32 ppm) were included in the varietal promotion criteria of pearl millet, which is first of its kind in any of the food crop and the world too ( 131 , 132 ). After Dhanashakti, the first wave of biofortified hybrids released were AHB 1200 and HHB 299 with 73–77 mg kg –1 Fe and 39–41 mg kg –1 Zn in 2018-19, and the second set of hybrids released during 2019-2020 were RHB 233, RHB 234, AHB 1269, HHB 311 with 83–91 mg kg –1 Fe and 39–46 mg kg –1 Zn. Improved little millet variety, CLMV1 for iron and zinc, improved finger millet varieties for iron, VR 929 (Vegavathi), for iron, zinc and calcium CFMV1 (Indravati) and CFMV2 are developed in millets with superior nutritional quality ( 133 ). Several bioactive compounds like quercetin, 3 deoxy anthocyanidins, kaempferol glycoside and flavonoids have beneficial effect on health. Identification of genotypes rich in these bioactive compounds and breeding them for satisfactory yield can be an important component of breeding programs. Multi-omics research on various agronomic and nutritional traits in millets still lags behind as these crops remained underexploited till recently. Multiple high throughput omics techniques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) have enabled the identification of phytochemicals having therapeutic potential in millets and also their biosynthetic pathways. Targeted and untargeted metabolomics studies alone or in combination with transcriptomics have been reported in millets ( 134 – 136 ). There have been large-scale mGWAS (metabolite genome-wide association studies) to aid in breeding for targeted metabolites in foxtail millet ( 137 ) and pearl millet ( 138 ). Studies especially on the metabolite diversity in millets to establish their therapeutic potential need to be explored. Millet cultivation is particularly pertinent in this era of global climate change, where erratic weather patterns are frequently witnessed, as millets can grow well in semi-arid and dry regions, where water and resources are scarce and soil quality is poor. Small millets like proso, barnyard, kodo, and browntop are short duration crops that fit very well in the agroecosystems for inter cropping and intermittent cropping and hold a great opportunity for increasing the productivity per unit area of land. In this regard, millets offer the supreme combination of sustainability and better nutrition.

Many food products equivalent to rice, wheat and maize can be prepared from millets and technologies for different millet food products like ready-to-cook (RTC) and ready-to-eat (RTE), recipes of worldwide and commercial scale production systems are ready at many places including ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad, India. Degree of decortication of the millet grains can be decided based on the end-use application, such as, for use in food products it can be decorticated to a higher degree, and for therapeutic purposes the degree of decortication can be reduced. Millets contain bioactive peptides that may be used to create functional food ingredients, however more investigation is needed to ascertain these peptides’ effects in vivo ( 139 ). Despite the existing body of research, several gaps in knowledge regarding the therapeutic properties of millets exist. There is a need for more in vitro and in vivo studies on the therapeutic potential of various nutrient components of millets and the specific mechanisms of action. Future research should include well-designed clinical trials and animal studies to address the gaps in current knowledge. Nutrigenomics of millets is yet to be explored, which would provide insights into the effect of nutritional components of millets on the health of individuals. Millet based food products for specific diets is a developing area opening enormous entrepreneurial opportunities.

8 Conclusion

Composition of millet grains, including their ample amounts of proteins, necessary amino acids, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, antioxidants, and other phytochemicals, makes them a valuable addition to the diet. Because of their hypoglycemic, anti-proliferative, anti-atherosclerogenic, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial qualities, millet has been linked to improved human health. Benefits of millets in diet provide better nutrition by supplementing especially with minerals and vitamins that keep the individuals in good health and keep many disorders at bay. Presence of bioactive compounds reduces and slows the progress of lifestyle disorders and ailments most importantly by scavenging. Elimination of nutrient deficits like zinc and iron can be overcome with the help of millets. Leads at the research front indicate that many answers to today’s issues, from diabetes management to obesity and starvation, lie in millets. Millets are nutritional and hold a high promise for the therapeutic and pharmaceutical industry as nutraceuticals.

Author contributions

JJ: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. VK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. ChA: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. MB: Writing – original draft, Data curation. CA: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. KM: Writing – original draft. TN: Funding acquisition, Writing – review and editing. CS: Funding acquisition, Writing – review and editing, Resources. KV: Writing – review and editing, Conceptualization, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

KV, JJ, VK, MB, CA, TN, CS are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), India. All the authors acknowledge the funding from Global Centre of Excellence on Millets (Shree Anna) project funded by ICAR-IIMR, Hyderabad, India. KV, JJ, and MB acknowledge the research grant SPG/2021/001958, from SERB, India. The authors are thankful to Mr. H. S. Gawali for photography.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• ^ https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02240173

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Keywords : ancient grains, nutricereals, life style disorders, malnutrition, micronutrients, cancer, celiac disease, vitamins

Citation: Jacob J, Krishnan V, Antony C, Bhavyasri M, Aruna C, Mishra K, Nepolean T, Satyavathi CT and Visarada KBRS (2024) The nutrition and therapeutic potential of millets: an updated narrative review. Front. Nutr. 11:1346869. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1346869

Received: 30 November 2023; Accepted: 04 April 2024; Published: 30 April 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Jacob, Krishnan, Antony, Bhavyasri, Aruna, Mishra, Nepolean, Satyavathi and Visarada. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Kurella B. R. S. Visarada, [email protected]

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