google earth essay

Students as Explorers: Using Google Earth With Literature

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Global education has the ability to engage students by helping them see the real-world connections and applications of what they are learning in the classroom. Today, Jerome Burg, founder and president of GLT Global ED and Google Lit Trips, explains how Google Earth is a great tool to bring literature to life.

by guest blogger Jerome Burg

The flexibility of digital mapping introduces unprecedented interactivity that is rapidly disrupting the usage of traditional static printed maps. With a single digital map we can now choose a global view, a regional view, or a street view. We can personalize our relationship to, and understanding of, the world within which we exist. We can become explorers, cartographers, creators, disseminators, and consumers of immersive interactive global geo-spatial information.

The Google Lit Trips project was born from curiosity: could Google Earth be conducive to creating an immersive interactive experience that could enhance student engagement by adding real world relevance to fiction and narrative nonfiction? Would it be possible to virtually allow students inside the story to interact with stories set in the real world, where readers become virtual traveling companions of the characters? If so, this might enhance the reader’s intellectual and emotional understanding of the human condition as experienced by the characters as well as their own understanding of it.

Setting the Virtual Stage Google Earth, through the power of suspension of disbelief, allows students to virtually feel as though they are inside, and interacting with, the story. For example, by tilting and reorienting the view away from the traditional bird’s eye view to one more like a first person perspective, the reader can virtually see the world from the character’s point of view.

Traditional mapping view of road to Jalalabad with Bird’s Eye view and North at the top.

Virtual view of road to Jalalabad with tilted view and reoriented direction of travel is at the top.

The images above show a very different view of the area of road from Kabul to Jalalabad through which Amir and Baba traveled in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. The image on the top, though bringing the wonders of satellite technology into play, in reality does little to create an immersive engagement. There is neither a sense of the look and feel of the land nor even of the direction of travel. Thus viewers are unnaturally distanced from the experience the characters are having.

But the image of the same location on the bottom, when tilted and reoriented, adds a 3D dimension to the traveling experience. Readers find themselves virtually looking through the windshield seeing the terrain as the road ahead winds through the treacherous Khyber Pass in the distance and the unknown beyond.

Among Google Earth’s additional resources to set the stage for a “journey,” is the ability to zoom out to reveal more geo-context similar to a long shot used in films or to zoom in as close as a photographic street view, to emphasize detail similar to a close up shot used in film. Google Earth’s animation of the movement from place to place mirrors the sensation of actually traveling alongside the characters.

The effect can be similar to the willing suspension of disbelief experienced when readers are thoroughly engaged in a story. Even though they know they are not, readers temporarily allow themselves to feel as though they are in the same place, at the same time, facing the same challenging circumstances as the characters. The likelihood that readers will more readily experience empathy for their traveling companions’ circumstances increases.

However, the primary benefit in “virtualizing” story locations, aside from the obvious benefit of blending relevant geography curriculum goals with those of literary reading, is a plot-level engagement. Essentially, it immerses student attention in connecting place to plot.

Placemarks, Popups, and Pedagogy The challenge then becomes, to what extent is it feasible to virtualize student engagement with the story’s themes, making it possible to create a learning experience where students feel as though they are explorers discovering the story’s relevance in their own lives.

To this end, we turn to the power of placemarks. In Google Earth the traditional static yellow pushpin place markers become dynamic content-rich, “just-in-time” exploration opportunities.

It is the placemark popup windows that carry the pedagogical focus of a Lit Trip. Placemark content can take advantage of journey literature’s unique blend of fact and fiction by intentionally exposing characters to real-world history, traditions, and cultures beyond the world they had known. Similarly well-designed popup window content can personalize student engagement with a story’s themes, engaging readers in learning that expands their global awareness via seamless blends of literary and informational readings, and with cross-curricular and cross-cultural virtual encounters of their existing and newly discovered understandings of the human condition.

Our goal is to create immersive placemark popup content that offers intrinsic motivations to stop and linger as students are invited to explore within, as well as beyond, the story’s themes, discovering for themselves the intrinsic rewards to be found by venturing into their personal zones of proximal development .

Higher-level discussion starters replace plot-level questions, which too often redirect student attention toward only wondering what will be on the quiz, with interesting opportunities for students to connect their personal introspection and reflections upon a story’s themes.

Text, media, and internet links can be brought together in Google Earth placemark popup windows to extend the virtualization experience well beyond virtualizing the locations alone.

The first location placemark in “Abuela,” by Arthur Dorros.

In the children’s book, Abuela, by Arthur Dorros, Rosalba, who grew up in New York City, shares that her abuela (grandmother) immigrated to New York City after having grown up in Puerto Rico. For this reason, the first placemark view is set to a long shot so that students can see the geographical relationship between Puerto Rico and New York City. The story mirrors elements of the multi-generational and multi-cultural immigration experience common to people of many cultures.

Students can watch a video about the annual Puerto Rico Day parade where they see people of Puerto Rican heritage and of many other cultures celebrating the music, dress, and customs of Puerto Rico. Students are also invited to explore the Time for Kids Around the World Puerto Rico site for information about Puerto Rico where they can explore some of the similarities and differences between Puerto Rican culture and their own.

In another placemark students are encouraged to identify common words that are actually Spanish words and to guess the meanings of a few Spanish words they may not know. In that placemark they find links to this Spanish for Kids site. Another appropriately focuses upon the Statue of Liberty and includes a 360° aerial tour of the statue.

In Google Lit Trips, the traditional, single-subject curricular focus becomes a virtualized cross-curricular and cross-cultural immersive multimedia experience connecting students’ personal lives to the lives of characters from our shared global literary heritage. In short, Google Lit Trips provides a venue in which students can explore and discover for themselves the answer to that old question: “What in the world does this story have to do with anything I care about?”

Related Resources

• RSA ANIMATE: Drive: The Surprising Truth about What Motivates Us. The RSA. YouTube . Adapted from Dan Pink’s talk at the RSA, illustrates the hidden truths behind what really motivates us at home and in the workplace.
• Christensen, Clayton M., Michael B. Horn, and Curtis W. Johnson. Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns. McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.
• GLT Overview: Animation Demo . GoogleLitTrips. Vimeo Video. Video uses a single placemark from the Google Lit Trip for The Kite Runner to demonstrate the look, feel, and basic design of Lit Trip popup windows.

Follow Jerome and Heather on Twitter.

Images courtesy of the author.

The opinions expressed in Global Learning are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Exploring Landscapes with Google Earth Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Exercise 1: Basics of Google Earth and Landscape Features

Exercise 2: map overlays, exercise 3: exploring landscapes using ge.

In this exercise, the map of Australia served the purpose for the study. In terms of the overall overlook on the map of Australia, the most distinctive feature is the desert which covers the central part of the continent, extending towards the west (Smithson 2002). Ideally, it covers almost the entire continent. This is exhibited by the brownish color, indicating that the area is dry. As such, this served as the guide in dividing the continent into two different landscapes as shown below (Bohm & Chaudhri 2000).

The climatic condition of Australia is a function of both the equatorial climate and the sea coast. The tropic of Capricorn traverses the continent, dividing it into the tropical north and the temperate south shown on the map above (Miller 2008).

The lakes that appear as white patches on the Australian continent are shown with yellow placemarks in the map below.

The lake that is located on latitude 29°18’22.77″S and longitude 137°19’36.24″E is shown in the map below. The three distinct images present the historical images taken over time.

The changes in the appearances of the lake are a function of the climate change. In fact the water levels are dependent on the tropical monsoon. As such, when there is no rain the lake becomes salty (image 1 and 3). Image 2 was taken when the monsoon was strong and, therefore, the water levels were high. The brown color of water is as a result of soil erosion. The elevation of Lake Eyre South is 25 m above the sea level.

As per the measurements, the longest width (east-west direction) of the floor of the lake (Eyre South) is equivalent to 22.5 Km. On the other hand, its longest length in the north-south direction is 21.9 Km (see below).

The floor of the lake is highly varied, increasing in depth as you move towards the east from 20m to 11m in the west above the sea level.

Lake Eyre North is below the sea level (-10m) while Lake Eyre South is 14m above the sea level (see the map below) (Holden 2004). As such, the flow of the river is from south to north. When both lakes are filled concurrently with water, Lake Eyre South would fill faster than Lake Eyre North since it has a small capacity (see below).

The dune shown on the location 29° 4’8.33″S and 136° 8’10.05″E is shown in the image below:

The figure below shows how the interdune distances in the north of 29° 4’8.33″S and 136° 8’10.05″E was obtained.

The average interdune distance was established to be 0.45Km. On the other hand, the average width was established to be 0.15Km; smaller than the interdune distance. These dunes had an average height of one metre. The orientation of the dunes with respect to the North Pole is at 63.65 o . In the location 28° 36.844’S 136° 4.553’E, there are no dunes since this place is a depression and could be serving as a seasonal river that destroys dunes whenever it rains. The map below shows locations of dunes in different regions in Australia.

The orientation of the dunes is varied depending on the wind pattern of Australia.

The figure below presents the Cobaw granite region:

Cobaw granite and the bluish sedimentary rocks are in different altitudes. The former is located on the high land, approximately 450 m above the sea level. On the other hand, the sedimentary rocks are located on a gentle valley sloping towards the north from an elevation of 350m to 95m above the sea level at Echuca in the Murray River. This terrain explains why the tributaries and creeks on the sedimentary rocks face towards the northern side. On the other hand, on the Cobaw granite the drainage is haphazard and disjointed. Some of the factors that influence the drainage patterns of these two regions include the slope and the nature of the bedrock (Martins 2010).

The white things that are seen on the geological map in the northeastern side of the Baynton are the newer volcanic materials that include basalt, olivine, tuff and scoria among other alkaline-based derivatives. They do happen on a hill where they are spilled over from the molten magma. See the figure below of the area.

The feature that is in point 37° 6.155’S 144° 39.805’E (see below) is a valley and it is characterized by quartzite and hornfels. These materials are formed from a reaction that happens when a rock is subjected to high temperatures and pressure, transforming it to form ores. This process is called contact metamorphism (Pain & Wilford 2012).

The area in the left of Staughton Vale was not cleared in spite of it having Ordovician and Quaternary sedimentary materials since the trees in this region act as water catchment that provide fresh water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use. Importantly, these materials were eroded to this area from the north. This is owed to the fact that the terrain of the region slopes from north to south and the creeks point in the north-south direction (Dennison 2009).

• Timbuktu is in central Mali and it is based on a desert landscape. The distinctive features found here are the dunes and the river (Niger). People living in the north of Timbuktu find it hard to cope with the landscape since they overlook the desert and hence they are affected by the desert winds and the adverse weather conditions.
• The Rodriguez Island off Mauritius coast is brownish in color, implying that the area is experiencing erosion after the trees were cleared by man after the 15 th century.
• Maldive is an island that is on the risk of being submerged. Its average altitude is two metres above the sea level. The coastlines of the islands are curved to reduce the effects of the ocean currents from the sea (see Gan Island).
• The Darling River in Louth, Australia has a grey waterbed while the surrounding landscape is reddish. This image is due to soil erosion which has happened over a long period, sweeping away the top soil and exposing the minerals that are buried beneath the soil.
• Franz Joseph Glacier in New Zealand is as a result of moraine formation that was deposited approximately 10Km from the glacier about 12,000 years ago. With regards to elevation, the difference in altitude between Wahio Loop (29m) and the terminus end of the moraine (140m) is 111 metres.
• The expanse of cultivated land is reducing due to an increase in population; therefore, people are clearing the forest in order to create space for settlement. Also, the area of the cultivated land has reduced with the onset of industrialization.

Bohm, A & Chaudhri, D 2000, Australia’s physical study: an analysis of the geology of the continent , IDP Education Australia, Sydney.

Dennison, C 2009. Physical geography: A Scientific Basis for the Healthy Waterways Campaign, Thomson Learning, South Melbourne.

Holden, J 2004, Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment , Prentice-Hall, London.

Martins, M 2010, “Land of earthquakes and volcanoes,” Australian Geographic , vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 7-10.

Miller, G 2008, Sensitivity of the Australian Monsoon to insolation and vegetation: Implications for human impact on continental moisture balance, Geology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 65-68.

Pain, C & Wilford, JR 2012, Flat and red-Australia’s distinctive landscape, Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra.

Smithson, P 2002, Fundamentals of the Physical Environment , Routledge, London.

• Geography, Mapping, and Cartography
• Human Geography as the Study of Space and Place
• Native Dune Systems vs. Man-Made Beach Structures
• Sedimentary Rocks as the Archives of Earth History
• Jane Eyre: Novel vs. Film
• Hydrosphere, Biosphere, and Lithosphere
• Polar Ice Caps in Antarctica and the Arctic
• The Reasons for the Four Seasons on Earth
• Deep-Sea Currents and Upwelling Along Florida
• Weather Forecasting and Its Development Prospects
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, January 20). Exploring Landscapes with Google Earth. https://ivypanda.com/essays/exploring-landscapes-with-google-earth/

"Exploring Landscapes with Google Earth." IvyPanda , 20 Jan. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/exploring-landscapes-with-google-earth/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Exploring Landscapes with Google Earth'. 20 January.

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Earth Science — The Beauty of Earth: An Essay on the Magnificence of Our Planet

The Beauty of Earth: an Essay on The Magnificence of Our Planet

• Categories: Earth Science

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Published: Mar 8, 2024

Words: 598 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

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The natural wonders of earth, the diverse inhabitants of earth, preserving the beauty of earth.

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Essay on My Earth

Students are often asked to write an essay on My Earth in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on My Earth

Our home: earth.

Earth is our home, the third planet from the sun. It’s the only planet known to have life, with millions of species, including us, humans.

Earth’s Beauty

Earth is beautiful, filled with breathtaking landscapes. It has high mountains, vast oceans, and lush green forests that are full of life.

Importance of Earth

Earth provides us with everything we need to survive, like water, food, and air. Without Earth, we wouldn’t exist.

As residents of Earth, we must protect it. We should recycle, conserve water, and plant trees to keep our Earth healthy and beautiful.

250 Words Essay on My Earth

The essence of earth, earth: a life-sustaining ecosystem.

Earth’s ecosystem is a complex, interconnected network that sustains life. It provides the resources we need to survive, from the air we breathe to the food we eat. The Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere work in harmony to create a balanced environment. The Earth’s ability to sustain life is a testament to its resilience and adaptability, but it also highlights its vulnerability to human-induced changes.

Our Responsibility Towards Earth

As the most intelligent species on Earth, we humans have a profound responsibility towards its preservation. Our actions have significant implications for the Earth’s health. Climate change, deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of resources are some of the critical issues that our Earth faces today. It’s our duty to mitigate these challenges and strive for sustainable living.

The Earth: Our Shared Home

In conclusion, Earth is our shared home, a life-sustaining ecosystem, and a symbol of unity and interdependence. Our actions today will determine the Earth’s future. As we navigate the complexities of the 21st century, let’s remember our responsibility towards Earth and strive to protect and preserve it for future generations.

500 Words Essay on My Earth

Introduction.

Earth, our home planet, is a vibrant, dynamic sphere teeming with life. It’s the only celestial body known to support life, and its intricate systems work together to create the perfect conditions for life to thrive. This essay explores Earth from a comprehensive perspective, delving into its physical characteristics, its role in the solar system, and the responsibility of humans as its inhabitants.

The Physical Attributes of Earth

Earth’s physical features are as diverse as they are awe-inspiring. From the highest peak of Mount Everest to the deepest trench in the Mariana, Earth’s topography is a testament to its dynamic nature. The planet’s surface is 70% water, primarily in oceans, and 30% land, comprising seven continents. The atmosphere, a protective layer of gases, shields us from solar radiation and meteor impacts. The Earth’s magnetic field, generated by its rotating iron core, further provides protection against solar winds.

Earth in the Solar System

The biodiversity of earth.

Earth’s biodiversity is a treasure trove of life. From the microscopic organisms in the soil to the blue whales in the ocean, life on Earth is incredibly diverse. This biodiversity is not just about the number of species, but also about the variety of ecosystems and genetic diversity within species. Each species, no matter how small, plays a vital role in maintaining the balance of our planet’s ecosystems.

Human Responsibility

As the dominant species, humans have a profound responsibility towards Earth. Our activities have significantly impacted the planet’s environment, often to its detriment. Climate change, deforestation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity are some of the pressing issues that we face today. As stewards of the Earth, it is incumbent upon us to shift towards sustainable practices that ensure the health and longevity of our planet.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Google Earth vs Google Maps: What’s the Difference?

No one can say how big Google Earth and Google Maps are. But we know they both have an incalculable amount of data . There are:

• 24 million satellite photos from the past 37 years. [1]
• 7.3 billion user contributions per year (20 million pieces of information every day). [2]
• 170 billion Street View images from 87 countries around the world. [3]
• 20 petabytes (10 15 ) of geocoded addresses and satellite imagery. [4]

In a world that’s constantly changing, Google Earth and Google Maps give us the most complete picture of Earth combining imagery, 3D topography, location data, and Street View into a platform anyone can explore.

But which one should you use? Let’s take a look over the differences between Google Earth vs Google Maps in a bit more detail.

Google Earth vs Google Maps

Here’s a comparison table that outlines various aspects of Google Maps and Google Earth

1. Navigation

Both Google Earth and Google Maps have hundreds of millions of geocoded places in 220+ countries around the world. But Google Earth isn’t designed to help you navigate from place to place. Instead, it’s more for exploring the world on a broader scale.

Whereas Google Maps is specifically designed for navigation giving you turn-by-turn, voice-guided routing. By leveraging real-time traffic information, you always get the fastest route to your destination. Additionally, you can use it for real-time updates on public transportation and customize your favorite places. Overall, we ranked it #1 in our list of GPS apps for navigation .

Winner : Google Maps

2. Historical Imagery

If you want to explore historical imagery, Google Earth has over 24 million satellite photos from the past 37 years. Overall, it gives you 20+ zoom levels in Google Earth and it’s our top choice for historical imagery viewers .

At its broadest scale is Landsat, then as you zoom in you get sharper imagery. But if you really want to dig deeper into historical imagery, use Google Earth Pro on your desktop to overlay and access all the different slices of time.

Although Google Maps has satellite imagery built into its platform, you don’t get as much choice for which slice of time you want to view. Instead, you get the most current cloudless satellite imagery or aerial photograph for your area of interest without getting to choose the one you want.

Winner : Google Earth

3. Street View

Anyone with an adventurous bone in their body should explore the world using Google Street View .

From Antarctica to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, Street View has collected more than 170 billion images from 87 countries around the world. But which platform should you use for Street View?

When you compare Google Earth vs Google Maps, there’s virtually no difference when it comes to Street View. You can dangle and drop Pegman in either one for you to virtually explore the entire world in person. When it comes to virtually moving up and down the streets, both are equally flexible.

READ MORE: 5 Adventurous Features in Google Street View

Winner : Both

4. 3D Buildings and Models

When you zoom into any metropolitan area, both Google Earth and Google Maps display a mix of hyper-realistic textured buildings and 3D models . For example, it includes features like bridges, monuments, and rollercoasters.

By using photogrammetry and SketchUp 3D modeling, it’s how Google maps the world in 3D. But there is little difference between the functionality available in both Google Earth vs Google Maps. Although Google Earth adds a bit more viewing versatility such as tilting and planning, they both allow you to immerse yourself in cityscapes and natural areas as shown in our list of 3D map viewers .

Introduced in 2022, immersive views are a new way to explore. It combines 3D maps, machine learning, computer vision, and street-level maps to deliver a visualization most people have never seen before. This new 3D type of map allows you to zoom in and out, rotate around buildings, and view landmarks from different angles for major cities of the world.

5. Local Trips

Google Maps is more of a specialist for local trips and navigation . And that can be for wherever you are in the world at the current time. For example, it suggests places in your current vicinity and you can share your location on your current trip.

The main purpose of Google Maps is to help you wherever you want to go. If you want to know things to do like museums, parks, restaurants, and theaters, Google Maps should be your go-to app of choice with traffic information and route suggestions to help you get there faster.

6. Exploration

The focus of Google Earth is virtual trips and guided tours around the world. It has more of an educational aspect to it.

For example, Voyager is a feature in Google Earth that is like map-based stories highlighting everything from nature, culture, travel, and history. Additionally, it has an exploratory feature “I’m Feeling Lucky” which takes you anywhere interesting in the world.

When it comes to drawing out features, Google Earth also feels a bit more intuitive. For instance, it has a panel for you to import/export KMZ or KML files . You can edit the map, and export your features for use in other software. By making a new project, you can also create presentations that can fly you across the globe to sightsee or showcase other locations in the world.

Whether you’re using Google Earth or Google Maps, they both can help you see the world with updated imagery, 3D topography, location data, and Street View information.

The focus of Google Maps is on local navigation and routing .

Whereas Google Earth has a large education component and is stronger with historical and 3D imagery as well as editing.

Can you think of any other ways to compare Google Earth vs Google Maps ? Please let us know in the comment section below.

• Time flies in Google Earth’s biggest update in years
• 9 Things to Know About Google’s Maps Data: Beyond the Map
• Google Maps 101: How We Map the World

15 Best Remote Sensing Software

5 Best Web Mapping Platforms – The Battle of Web GIS

3D Maps: A Complete Guide To See Earth in 3D

The Hidden Powers of QGIS 3: Features and Plugins

13 Free GIS Software Options: Map the World in Open Source

30 Best GIS Software Applications [Rankings]

5 Best Free LiDAR Software Tools and Viewers

10 GPS Apps For Navigation [Android and iOS]

I think Google Earth is an app. I am trying to figure out if I can use it offline for improved speed, but my initial impression is it is connected to the Internet as well.

I seek a landmark in a neighborhood without knowing the specific location, & going down the streets in Maps is time-consuming.

I have not used Earth for many years wondering if I am missing out.

It’s possible to use Google Maps without an internet connection. You can download the data beforehand for offline use. I’ve done it before (a long time ago) when visiting New York.

Yes, Google Earth and Google Maps, are both important for geospatial experts as well as for decision makers, both has different theme and can be used as per requirement.

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Essay on Earth: Check Samples for 100, 300 Words

• Updated on  
• Sep 27, 2023

Essay on Earth: Earth, our cherished celestial abode, is a marvel of the cosmos. It teems with life, boasts breathtaking landscapes, and endures the test of time. In this blog, we embark on a journey to explore the myriad facets of our planet, from its geological mysteries to the pressing challenges of preserving its ecological harmony.

Table of Contents

• 1 Earth’s Geological History
• 2 Earth’s Climate
• 3 Preserving Earth’s Sustainability
• 4 Sample Essay On Earth In 100 Words
• 5 Sample Essay On Earth In 300 Words

Earth’s Geological History

Earth’s geological history spans eons, an epic tale told through rocks, fossils, and continents. It begins with the formation of our planet over 4.5 billion years ago, a violent birth amidst cosmic chaos. For billions of years, Earth underwent tumultuous transformations, from the fiery hell of its early years to the emergence of oceans and continents. 

Over time, life took root, evolving from simple organisms into the diverse array we know today. Plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, and meteor impacts further shaped our world. Understanding Earth’s geological history not only unveils its past but also offers insights into its future and the importance of conservation.

Must Read: Essay On Waste Management

Earth’s Climate

Earth’s climate is a complex interplay of atmospheric and oceanic dynamics that determine its weather patterns and long-term conditions. It encompasses a delicate balance of temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric composition, shaping the environments where life thrives. However, this equilibrium is now disrupted by human-induced climate change.

Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping heat and causing global temperatures to rise. This shift is causing extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and disrupting ecosystems worldwide. Addressing this climate crisis is one of the most pressing challenges of our time, requiring collective action to mitigate its impacts.

Preserving Earth’s Sustainability

Sustainability on Earth is the pivotal concept guiding our actions toward a harmonious coexistence with the planet. It revolves around responsible resource management, reducing waste, and respecting ecological limits. Sustainable practices encompass clean energy, conservation of biodiversity, and equitable access to resources, ensuring a resilient future.

Achieving sustainability is paramount in mitigating environmental crises, such as climate change and habitat loss. It demands global cooperation, conscious consumer choices, and innovative solutions. By embracing sustainability, we safeguard Earth’s precious ecosystems, secure resources for future generations, and preserve the beauty and diversity of our irreplaceable home.

Sample Essay On Earth In 100 Words

Earth, our celestial home, is a testament to the grandeur of the cosmos. For over 4.5 billion years, it has nurtured life, from the simplest organisms to the diverse tapestry we witness today. Earth’s geological history reveals eons of transformation, while its climate sustains ecosystems across continents. However, our planet faces unprecedented challenges. Human actions, from pollution to deforestation, imperil the delicate balance of nature. The climate crisis threatens ecosystems and communities. Yet, Earth’s resilience offers hope. Through conservation, sustainable practices, and global cooperation, we can safeguard this precious orb, ensuring its enduring beauty for generations to come.

Must Read: Essay On Save Water 

Sample Essay On Earth In 300 Words

Earth, our celestial abode, stands as a testament to the sublime beauty and intricate complexity of the cosmos. One of Earth’s most captivating aspects is its geological history, a narrative etched in the layers of rock, sediment, and fossils. From its tumultuous birth in a maelstrom of cosmic debris, our planet has evolved through epochs of geological transformation. Continents have shifted, mountain ranges have risen and eroded, and life has thrived and adapted. Exploring Earth’s geological history is like reading a captivating story, revealing the secrets of its past and the forces that have shaped its present landscapes.

Yet, Earth’s allure extends far beyond its geological marvels. Its climate, a symphony of atmospheric and oceanic interactions, creates diverse ecosystems that span the globe. From the lush rainforests of the Amazon to the stark beauty of polar ice caps, Earth’s climate has sculpted environments that support a dazzling array of life forms. The rhythm of seasons, the dance of wind and water, and the harmony of predator and prey are all part of this intricate tapestry.

However, as we celebrate Earth’s wonders, we must also confront the pressing challenges it faces today. Human activities, driven by industry and consumption, have led to environmental degradation on an unprecedented scale. Pollution chokes our air and water, while deforestation and habitat loss threaten countless species. Perhaps the most urgent challenge is the spectre of climate change, driven by the relentless emission of greenhouse gases. Rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and melting ice caps are stark reminders of the consequences.

Yet, in the face of these challenges, Earth displays its resilience. It offers hope that, through collective effort, we can restore the balance that sustains life. Conservation, sustainable practices, and international cooperation are the tools we possess to safeguard our cherished home. In conclusion, Earth is a treasure trove of geological wonders and ecological diversity.

Earth is called a “blue planet” because its surface is 70% water, giving it a predominantly blue appearance when seen from space.

Earth’s resources are depleting due to overexploitation, pollution, and unsustainable practices, threatening ecosystems, freshwater, minerals, and fossil fuels.

Write about Earth’s beauty, biodiversity, ecological balance, human impact, and the urgent need for conservation and sustainable practices.

We hope this blog gave you an idea about how to write and present an essay on Earth that puts forth your opinions. The skill of writing an essay comes in handy when appearing for standardized language tests. Thinking of taking one soon? Leverage Edu provides the best online test prep for the same via Leverage Live . Register today to know more!

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Short Essay on Our Planet Earth [100, 200, 400 words] With PDF

Earth is the only planet that sustains life and ecosystems. In this lesson, you will learn to write essays in three different sets on the planet earth to help you in preparing for your upcoming examinations.

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 100 Words

Earth is a rare planet since it is the only one that can support life. On Earth, life is possible for various reasons, the most essential of which are the availability of water and the presence of oxygen. Earth is a member of the Solar System. The Earth, along with the other seven planets, orbits the Sun.

One spin takes approximately twenty-four hours, and one revolution takes 365 days and four hours. Day and night, as well as the changing of seasons, occurs due to rotation and revolution. However, we have jeopardized our planet by our sheer ignorance and negligence. We must practise conservation of resources and look after mother earth while we have time.

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 200 Words

Earth is a blue planet that is special from the rest of the planets because it is the only one to sustain life. The availability of water and oxygen are two of the most crucial factors that make life possible on Earth. The Earth rotates around the Sun, along with seven other planets in the solar system. It takes 24 hours to complete one rotation, and approximately 365 days and 4 hours to complete one revolution. Day and night, as well as changing seasons, are all conceivable due to these two movements. 

However, we are wasting and taking advantage of the natural resources that have been bestowed upon us. Overuse and exploitation of all-natural resources produce pollution to such an alarming degree that life on Earth is on the verge of extinction. The depletion of the ozone layer has resulted in global warming. The melting of glaciers has resulted in rising temperatures.

Many animals have become extinct or are endangered. To protect the environment, we must work together. Conversation, resource reduction, reuse, and recycling will take us a long way toward restoring the natural ecosystem. We are as unique as our home planet. We have superior intelligence, which we must employ for the benefit of all living beings. The Earth is our natural home, and we must create a place that is as good as, if not better than, paradise.

Short Essay on Our Planet Earth in 400 Words

Earth is a unique planet as it is the only planet that sustains life. Life is possible on Earth because of many reasons, and the most important among them is the availability of water and oxygen. Earth is a part of the family of the Sun. It belongs to the Solar System.

Earth, along with seven other planets, revolves around the Sun. It takes roughly twenty-four hours to complete one rotation and 365 days and 4 hours to complete one revolution. Rotation and revolution make day and night and change of seasons simultaneously possible. The five seasons we experience in one revolution are Spring, Summer, Monsoon, Autumn, and Winter.

However, we are misusing resources and exploiting the natural gifts that have been so heavily endowed upon us. Overuse and misuse of all the natural resources are causing pollution to such an extent that it has become alarming to the point of destruction. The most common form of pollution caused upon the earth by us is Air Pollution, Land Pollution, Water Pollution, and Noise Pollution.

This, in turn, had resulted in Ozone Layer Depletion and Global Warming. Due to ozone layer depletion, there harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun are reaching the earth. It, in turn, is melting glaciers and causing a rise in temperature every year. Many animals have either extinct or are endangered due to human activities.

Some extinct animals worldwide are Sabre-toothed Cat, Woolly Mammoth, Dodo, Great Auk, Stellers Sea Cow, Tasmanian Tiger, Passenger Pigeon, Pyrenean Ibex. The extinct animals in the Indian subcontinent are the Indian Cheetah, pink-headed duck, northern Sumatran rhinoceros, and Sunderban dwarf rhinoceros.

The endangered animals that are in need of our immediate attention in India are Royal Bengal Tiger, Snow leopard, Red panda, Indian rhinoceros, Nilgiri tahr, Asiatic lion, Ganges river dolphin, Gharial and Hangul, among others. We have exploited fossil fuels to such an extent that now we run the risk of using them completely. We must switch to alternative sources of energy that are nature friendly. Solar power, windmills, hydra power should be used more often, and deforestation must be made illegal worldwide.

We must come together to preserve the natural environment. Conversation, reduction, reuse and recycling of the resources will take us a long way in rebuilding the natural habitat. We are as unique as our planet earth. We have higher intelligence, and we must use it for the well-being of all living organisms. The Earth is our natural abode, and we must make a place as close to Paradise, if not better.

Hopefully, after going through this lesson, you have a holistic idea about our planet Earth. I have tried to cover every aspect that makes it unique and the reasons to practise conversation of natural resources. If you still have any doubts regarding this session, kindly let me know through the comment section below. To read more such essays on many important topics, keep browsing our website. 

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• Open access
• Published: 22 September 2022

A simplified GIS and google-earth-based approach for lineaments and terrain attributes mapping in a basement complex terrain

• M. A. Lawal 1 ,
• A. O. Oshomoji 2 ,
• A. A. Akinlalu 3 ,
• K. O. Omosanya 4 ,
• O. S. Ndukwe 5 ,
• K. A. N. Adiat 3 &
• G. O. Mosuro 6  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  15801 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

• Geomorphology
• Hydrogeology
• Structural geology

In this study, we use an integrated geologic mapping technique for remote mapping of lineaments and geologic terrain. Our workflow is based on geographic information system tools and consists of stream network delineation, lineaments mapping, terrain roughness index calculation, and interpretation of structural fabrics from google earth aerial photographs. The case study area, the Idanre Hills in southwestern Nigeria, has a protracted history and is characterized by steep-sided outcrops of a granitic batholith and migmatite-gneiss. Lineaments are widespread and dense around the batholith, occurring in areas of high elevation, and slope gradient. Terrain roughness indices are high at the outcrops and lineament sites. Streams in the area exhibit variable flow and partly align with the lineaments. The high roughness indices observed have tectonic connotations and are related to the occurrence of lineaments, strain domains, and high degree of rock weathering. Importantly, our method is effective in remote mapping of lineaments and terrain attributes within the study area and has wider applications in other basement complex terrains.

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Introduction.

The availability of digital elevation models (DEMs) and digital surface models (DSMs) of almost all places on earth through platforms such as Google Earth, USGS earth explorer, and NASA’s world wind, and recent advances in geospatial technologies have enabled remote study of the earth’s geology and terrain properties 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . These DEMs come with improved ability to perform geospatial analysis 3 using tools such as ArcGIS and QGIS, and to virtually delineate geological features such as lineaments on a local to regional scale 6 , 7 . Lineaments are mappable linear geological features on earth’s surface and include faults, joints, shear zones, intrusions, and dykes. They are usually developed in areas of high stress or strain concentration following rifting or orogeny 8 , 9 .

Lineaments can be mapped through conventional geological field mapping 10 , which is generally laborious, costly and time-consuming, and via manual or automatic extraction from topographical maps, DEMs 11 , geological maps 12 , aeromagnetic data 13 , seismic reflection data 14 , 15 , and satellite images 11 , 16 , 17 . Moreover, integration of spatial data and geographic information system (GIS) techniques 2 , 18 has aided the study of terrain properties such as slope, hillshade 18 , and roughness 19 . These properties are crucial for geomorphological studies of the earth’s topography. Of greater significance is the integration of spatial data and GIS techniques for the analysis of topographic expressions such as lineaments, which are important for understanding tectonic evolution of the earth 7 , 20 .

Understanding the occurrence and impact of lineaments is vital in groundwater and ore mineral exploration as lineaments are favorable zones for groundwater migration and storage 21 , 22 , hydrothermal fluid migration, and ore mineral emplacement 23 , 24 . Since seismic hazards commonly occur in or near zones of intense and active faulting or tectonic movements 25 , 26 , knowledge of the occurrence and behavior of lineaments may be important in choosing building, dams, and bridge construction sites 27 . Lineaments such as faults may function as migration pathways for hydrocarbon (and other fluids) in the subsurface 28 , 29 , and are therefore commonly considered during hydrocarbon exploration 30 . Fracture porosity, which increases in high fracture density zones, is also important for enhanced oil and gas recovery 31 . Today, knowledge of the occurrence and behavior of fractures is important in the assessment of subsurface geological units for their storage potentials e.g., CO 2 32 .

Recognition and mapping of lineaments on open source and readily available data such as satellite or google earth images 6 , 7 , 33 are important in large sites that are partially accessible for conventional field mapping or better still for reconnaissance prior to detailed geologic field mapping. However, in the case of google earth imagery, despite its meter- to cm-scale spatial resolution, which permits visualization of features and the wide variety of information obtained from it, it is generally undervalued for geological studies. In this study, we apply an integrated workflow to reveal the suitability of GIS techniques and google earth imagery for remote mapping of lineaments and terrain characterization within a basement complex terrain. To achieve this aim, we studied a natural laboratory, the Idanre Hills in southwestern Nigeria. The Idanre Hills is covered by satellite data and characterized by highly deformed rock outcrops (Figs.  1 and 2 ). These rocks extend several tens of kms within the basement complex terrain of Nigeria. The basement complex of Nigeria represents an assemblage of Precambrian migmatite-gneiss-quartzite, schist and Older granite rocks 34 , 35 .

Location map of the study area. ( a ) Topographic map of the study area downloaded from Topex global topography data ( https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi ) and ( b ) Inset map showing location of the study area in the context of Africa.

( a ) Location map of the study as downloaded from google earth. Points marked as 1–7 highlight areas with interesting geological features and structures. ( b ) 3D view through the Idanre Hill and surrounding structural features. Images/Maps data: Google Earth, Maxar Technologies and CNES/Airbus.

Integrated use of GIS techniques and google earth aerial photographs for lineament mapping and terrain studies within the Nigerian basement complex is unknown or poorly documented to date. Few previous studies used remote sensing data to investigate the emplacement of the Idanre batholith 36 , highlight brittle and ductile deformation in rocks 37 , assess impact of lineaments and geology on groundwater potential 17 , 38 , 39 , studied the nature of lineaments and lithology 40 , and evaluated structural features within the Ife-Ilesha schist belt 41 in parts of the Nigerian basement complex. In this current study, lineaments were extracted from multi-directional hillshade maps generated from google earth DSMs of the Idanre Hills (Fig.  3 ). These maps have the advantage of producing unprecedented images of geological features by computing hillshade from different directions as opposed to the commonly used hillshade that is computed in one direction 8 , 21 . Terrain attributes were also studied by generating slope, elevation, and terrain rough index maps, as well as stream network of the study area (Fig.  3 ). Our approach proved to be effective in extracting 143 lineaments and for characterizing several disparate terrain attributes. The methods and results from this study have overarching applications for remotely mapping geology, in reconnaissance survey, and in characterizing structures and terrain types in basement complex environments.

Workflow and algorithms used in this study. The workflow is divided into two main parts; Data collection and Data analysis, including ( a ) stream network delineation ( b ) lineament mapping ( c ) terrain roughness index calculation, and ( d ) extraction of google earth images. N.B: sub-processes are shown in red font.

Location and geology of the study area

The Idanre Hills, the study area, lie within latitudes N 7° 02′–N 7° 08′ and Longitudes E 5° 00′–E 5° 12′ and has an elevation of 100 m to 900 m above sea level (Figs.  1 and 2 ). It is part of the basement complex terrain of Nigeria, which lies between the West African and Congo cratons, south of the Tuareg Shield, and forms part of the Pan-African mobile belt 42 , 43 , 44 . The Nigerian basement complex evolved through four orogenic phases, including the Liberian (2700 Ma), the Eburnean (2000 Ma), the Kibaran (1100 Ma), and the Pan African (± 600 Ma) orogenies 45 . The Liberian, Eburnean, and Kibaran orogenic phases were associated with intense deformation, isoclinal folding, regional metamorphism, and extensive migmatization. The last orogenic event i.e., the Pan-African orogeny is a regional tectono-thermal event that involved collision-related orogenic activities 46 . The Pan-African orogeny was characterized by granitization and gneissification, which produced syntectonic granites, homogeneous gneisses, regional metamorphism, and migmatization. Importantly, the Pan African orogeny caused high-level structural overprinting and re-calibration of several geochronological clocks in older rocks 47 , 48 , evidences of which are preserved in several outcrops within the Nigerian basement complex.

Rock types found within the basement complex of Nigeria can be classified into 3 main groups: (1) the migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex, (2) the schist belts, and (3) the Older granite suite 48 . The migmatite-gneisses are foliated and are the oldest rock types within the basement complex on a regional scale. The schist belts are low-grade sediment-dominated NNE-SSW trending rocks that are commonly in-folded into the migmatite–gneiss–quartzite complex 49 , while the older granites are commonly found within older rocks as high-level intrusions and rocks such as tonalites, diorites, granodiorites, granites, syenites, and charnockites 48 , 50 , 51 . Rock types found within the Idanre Hills area include Older porphyritic granites, migmatite-gneiss, Neoproterozoic metasediments 52 , and charnockites 51 , 53 . The Older granites are calc-alkaline rocks 53 and are often classified as pre-, syn- and post-tectonic rocks that are associated with the Pan-African orogeny. They were emplaced concordantly to semi-concordantly within the foliated migmatite-gneiss and in the overlying metasedimentary cover as a batholithic mass, often referred to as the Idanre batholith 36 , 39 . In terms of field observations, several lineaments and xenoliths of the migmatite-gneiss have been identified within the Older granites 36 . This is in addition to multiple weathering-derived coarse boulders of the granites 36 , 53 .

Streams, lineaments and terrain characterization in the study area

Stream network and topography.

The study area is drained by E-, W-, N-, and S-flowing streams (Figs.  4 and 5 ). The N-flowing streams are common in the western and northern parts, while the E- and W-flowing streams occur mainly in the southern, central, and eastern parts of the study area (Fig.  4 a). The streams in the eastern part exhibit a radial drainage pattern around the high and low elevation areas i.e., in areas coincident with rock exposures outcrops, and the Idanre township (Fig.  4 a,b). The N- and W-flowing streams are connected in the west, where they collectively exhibit dendritic drainage pattern and form the largest drainage and most interlinked network of streams within the study area (Fig.  4 ). The delineated watershed covers approximately 86 km 2 in area and extends from the central to the western part of the study area, where it bounds several N–S and E–W oriented streams (Fig.  4 a,b). Topographically, the center of the study area is characterized by intermediate to high elevation regions, with sparsely-distributed low elevation areas mostly surrounding the high elevation spots (Figs.  4 a and 6 a). The same areas are characterized by intermediate to predominantly high slopes (Fig.  6 b). The western and eastern parts of the study area are associated with intermediate elevation values, except at sparsely distributed outcrop locations, such as in the northeastern axis where elevations are locally high (Figs.  4 a and 6 a). Slope values in these areas are generally low. However, high slope, albeit sparsely distributed, are observed at outcrop sites in these areas (Fig.  6 b). The northern half of the study area is more broadly characterized by continuous patches of orange color, indicating high elevation values within areas that are linked to settlements (Fig.  6 a). These areas are also associated with high slope values and are flanked by high elevation outcrop sites from which the streams emerge, reaching low elevation and low slope areas in the east and west, respectively. In the west, these areas fall within the watershed and form the topographic lows for northward flowing streams (Fig.  4 ).

( a ) Elevation of the study area overlain by stream network derived from the hydrology algorithm ( b ) Stream network map showing the outline of the mapped watershed.

Multi-directional hillshade maps overlain by stream network (red lines) and watershed (blue lines) of the study area. The hillshade maps are generated from google earth digital surface model (DSM) using different azimuth angles shown by the inset red arrows. ( a ) 45° azimuth ( b ) 50° azimuth ( c ) 100° azimuth angle ( d ) 200° azimuth angle ( e ) 315° azimuth and ( f ) 345° azimuth.

( a ) Elevation map of the study area as rasterized from the google earth DSM in Fig.  2 a. ( b ) Slope attribute as derived from the spatial analysis tool in ArcGIS. The map is used to identify changes in slope (gradient or steepness) within the study area.

Lineament orientation and distribution

143 lineaments were extracted from the six multi-directional hillshade maps in Fig.  5 a–f. Analysis of these lineaments and rose plot reveal the occurrence of ENE-WSW, NNW-SSE, N-S, NW–SE, ESE-WNW, E-W, and NE-SW-trending lineament populations, with the ENE-WSW trend being predominant (Figs.  5 , 7 , and 8 ). The northern half of the study area is dominated by NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW oriented lineaments that are widely observed in the north central part, where points 1 and 2 are located (Figs.  7 and 8 ). Minor occurrences of N-S, ESE-WNW, E-W, and NE-SW oriented lineaments are recorded outside the north central area (Fig.  5 ). The southern half is dominated by ENE-WSW oriented lineaments, followed by the NNW–SSE oriented types. This is in addition to minor N–S, NW–SE, and WNW–ESE oriented lineaments that occur in the area (Fig.  7 ). Within this area, lineaments are highly concentrated in the south-central part. On the other hand, their distribution in the southwestern part of the area is highly-sparse, as only two lineaments (NNW–SSE and NNE–SSW trending types) were identified there. In addition, lineaments are more abundantly distributed in the eastern part, which is dominated by the NNW-SSE trending types (Fig.  7 ).

Distribution of lineaments within the study area. The lineaments are extracted from the hillshade maps in Fig.  4 and are here displayed on the 200° azimuth angle hillshade map. N.B: Rose diagram shows the strike of the lineaments.

Stream network overlain on extracted lineaments within the study area. Black arrow shows areas where a stream segment overlaps with a lineament.

In terms of their interactions, lineaments show marked geometrical and topological relationships (Figs.  7 , 8 , 9 ). Geometrical relationships between the lineaments include isolated, abutting, cutting, and mutually cutting relationships. All the types of fracture topological relationships proposed by 54 such as I-, X-, and Y-nodes are also observed (Fig.  7 ). For example, the NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW lineaments intersect at multiple points close to point 1 where they exhibit mutually intersecting geometries. Three NW–SE oriented lineaments abut on a NE–SW oriented lineament to the west of point 5 (Fig.  7 ). This relationship is also observed among lineaments in points 4 and 6, and south of point 7. With respect to streams and other landmark features, some lineaments in the study area overlap with stream segments. This relationship is observed near points 3 and 4, where the traces of two ENE–WSW oriented lineaments correspond to segments of two similarly oriented streams (black arrow in Fig.  8 ). This character, although not prevalent, is also observed northward of point 6, west of point 6, and northeast of point 5 (Fig.  8 ). Similarly, some lineaments are observed near or within settlement areas, where they extend across roads and buildings within the Idanre township (Fig.  8 ).

Lineament density (/km 2 ) map of the study area as derived from the digitized lineaments from the hillshade maps in Fig.  4 . The rose diagram is used to demonstrate the strike of the lineaments.

Lineament density mapping

Computed lineament density ranges from 0.00 to 116.81 per km 2 (Fig.  9 ). Areas with high lineament density (97.34–116.81) are predominant in the center of the study area, while areas with low to zero (0.00–19.47) lineament density are widespread in zones surrounding the lineaments, and in the eastern and western parts of the study area (Fig.  9 ). High lineament density values observed in the center of the study area are associated with a NE-SW trend, which appears as though the lineament density patterns collectively reflect an underlying highly deformed or anomalous geological feature (Fig.  9 ). In the northern half of the study area, the highest lineament density is observed at lineament intersection points close to point 1. This is followed by high lineament values in areas in-between points 1 and 2. In the southern half, high lineament density values are observed near point 4, east of point 5, and north and west of point 6 (Fig.  9 ). These zones are associated with lineament intersections and abutment as shown in Fig.  8 . The highest lineament density is associated with point 6.

Terrain roughness assessment

Computed terrain roughness index ranges from 0.09 to 0.84 (Fig.  10 a,b). The largest concentration of high roughness values is observed as a continuous NW–SE trending red patch in the settlement areas. In addition, high roughness values are distributed in major parts of the study area and are particularly observed at the sites of the lineaments and outcrops in the center of the study area and in few other parts of the study area (Fig.  10 b). For example, in the southwestern part, the two lineaments with NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW trends are associated with red patches indicating high terrain roughness values at these locations (Fig.  10 b). A similar relationship is observed close to points 3 and 4, where outcrops and lineaments are present (compare Figs.  2 and 8 ).

Terrain roughness map showing changes in terrain properties especially at points 1–7. ( a ) with stream network and road overlain and ( b ) with lineaments overlain.

Validation of structures with google earth imagery

Given the high spatial resolution of google earth aerial photographs, it is of interest to understand to what extent observations from the generated maps correspond to real life terrain features on google earth images. The study area comprises km-scale massive high elevation outcrops with steep sides and an undulating topography i.e., rock blocks with sharply changing elevation (Figs.  11 a–f and 12 a–d). These rocks are dome-like, and they locally constitute several extensive rock chains that are separated from one another by vegetation and low-lying areas. The dome-like blocks exhibit a NW–SE trending axis (Fig.  12 a,c). Relative to lineaments, point 1 which is associated with high lineament density in Fig.  9 is linked to a series of ENE-WSW trending linear features or lineaments that separate the deformed rock mass into several folded blocks (Figs.  11 a and 12 a). The tip of the folds as mapped on a transect across three ridges in the area, can reach up to 501 m in height (Fig.  12 a,d). This is corroborated by Fig.  1 which reveals high elevation values of up to 900 m at the Idanre Hills peaks as against the 100 m height in surrounding areas. Several NE–SW trending linear features are also observed near point 6 (Figs.  11 c and 12 b). These features are like those observed in Figs.  5 and 6 , which confirms that the area is a very high lineament density area (Fig.  9 ). Outcropping rocks seen in the central part of the study area (Fig.  2 a,b) are also observed to have sharp changes in elevation i.e., undulations, and white–grey patches (Figs.  11 and 12 ), which appear to be related to the intermediate to high terrain roughness values observed in the lineament and outcrop sites (Fig.  10 ).

Uninterpreted and virtually realized 3D images of points 1–7. Maps data: Google Earth, Maxar Technologies and CNES/Airbus.

( a ) Interpretation of structures from some of the selected points ( d ) Transects and topographic profiles the structures indicated in ( a )–( c ) and ( e ) schematic structural model for the interpreted images in ( a )–( c ). Maps data: Google Earth, Maxar Technologies and CNES/Airbus.

This work demonstrates the effectiveness of using GIS techniques and google earth aerial photographs to map and provide preliminary data on lineaments. Since this work provides a reconnaissance tool, there is no ground truth data. Hence, no rigorous interpretation of the geological features (at outcrop scale or less) is provided. Nevertheless, the approach and results from this work have overarching applications for.

Lineament characterization

The integrated approach used here revealed structures with different orientations and those that were probably hidden by the vegetation cover. The application of multi-directional hillshade maps proved to be reliable in mapping lineaments within the study area in a similar way as previously done in other terrains such as in India’s Pravara basin 21 and in the north and southeastern desert of Egypt 8 . The 143 lineaments extracted in the study area are distributed at several outcrop sites in the center of the study area. The lineaments have variable orientations, including NNW–SSE, ENE–WSW, NNE–SSW, ESE–WNW, E–W, SE–NW, and NE–SW trends, with the ENE–WSW trend being the most dominant. This observation is in line with previous studies, which relied on the analysis of Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus and Advanced spaceborne thermal emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) DEM data covering the Idanre Hills and surrounding areas 17 , 36 . Thus, reflecting the power of google earth imagery and its derivatives in extracting meaningful geological information especially in the absence of ground geological field work.

The lineaments mapped in this study generally represent zones of weakness or fractures, which formed following several phases of local or regional deformation. Their orientations suggest they can be classified as similar features identified previously in the study area. The NNW–SSW/NNE–SSW and ENE–WSW-trending lineaments may correspond to similarly oriented fractures mapped on field and satellite data, which are oriented parallel and normal to the long axis of the Idanre batholith, respectively 36 . Additionally, the NNW-SSW and NNE-–SSW fractures are likely to have fostered the emplacement of the Idanre batholith forcefully within the surrounding migmatite-gneiss 53 . On the other hand, the ENE–WSW fractures may evidence slow cooling at depth and shrinkage due to compressive force that accompanied the emplacement of the batholith 36 . On a regional scale, similar NNW–SSE and ENE–WSW-trending fractures have been observed from other areas within the basement complex of Nigeria e.g. 17 . Hence, signifying that these lineaments may be linked to regional episodes of deformation or polycyclic tectonic history that characterizes rocks within the basement complex of Nigeria 47 , 55 .

Lineament density: variability and controls

Analysis of lineament density reveal variable lineament density values across the study area (Fig.  9 ). Areas with high density are associated with the occurrence of outcrops, intersecting to abutting lineaments, and high lineament clustering. This indicates high degree of lineament connectivity 56 . The behavior is manifested in points 1 and 6 where high lineament cluster and density are revealed by intersection and abutting relationships between lineaments, and a moderately to highly rugged terrain (Figs.  6 , 7 , 8 , 9 and 10 ). Several deformation-related features which indicate the occurrence of high strain domain that may enhance fracture density are also identified in the vicinity of point 6. These are variably oriented linear features which deform folded or dome-like, high elevation, rock blocks across the center of the study area (Figs.  11 and 12 a–c). On the contrary, intermediate to low lineament density values observed in the eastern and western sections of the study area are due to the paucity of outcrops there (Figs.  2 a and 9 ). Hence, areas with high lineament density are likely to be the most deformed, while areas with low lineament density are expected to have lower degree of deformation. Similar hypothesis was made by 57 in the Suoimuoi catchment, northwest Vietnam based on the distribution of lineaments there.

Consequently, the variable lineament density and lineament distribution patterns observed in the study area may be due to lithological or structural controls 58 . The preferential clustering of the fractures in the center of the study area as confirmed on the lineament density map indicates that the center was more evidently deformed than surrounding areas i.e., a high strain domain or that the rocks in the central area/core were more sensitive to brittle deformation. Reference 59 suggest that enhanced straining will cause increased fracture intensity. The center of the study area, where outcropping rocks were identified corresponds to exposed sections of the Idanre batholith, which has been suggested to be better deformed more than the surrounding migmatite country rock 36 . This deformation likely represents imprints of emplacement tectonics, which generally predisposes the granitic outcrops in the central part of the study area to higher degree of deformation unlike the surrounding areas where our observation suggests lower degree of deformation. Our observations suggest that the variable lineament density and lineament distribution in the study area are dictated by the rock type and degree of deformation. In addition, the abundance and paucity of outcrops in the central and other parts of the study area, respectively corresponds to the distribution of lineaments in these areas. Hence, the distribution of lineaments in the Idanre Hills area is primarily controlled by the spatial distribution of rocks/outcrops.

Terrain roughness versus rock weathering and fracture behavior

Our results further indicate that south of point 1 and north of point 2, the high terrain roughness values are due to the presence of settlements/houses (Figs.  2 and 10 ). These high values may signify the level of surface complexity or topographic texture associated with the settlements 19 . In addition, high terrain roughness values observed in outcrop areas may correspond to the white–grey patches and fractures observed on the google earth images in Figs.  10 , 11 and 12 . High terrain roughness in outcrop sites can reflect moderate to high weathering of the rocks since differential rock weathering commonly leads to increased surface roughness 60 . Evidences of physical, chemical, and biological weathering, including disintegrated coarse rock boulders, mineral alteration, and rock surfaces habited by plants were documented on rocks within the Idanre Hills area 53 . This widespread activity presumably jointly contributed to the high terrain roughness values observed in the study. In addition, the high terrain roughness observed at lineament sites (Figs.  2 and 10 b) indicates an abundance of fractures of elevated roughness, which can enhance rock weathering and that these fractures greatly enhanced the high roughness values observed in the study area.

Lineament-influenced streams within the Idanre Hills area

Results of stream network analysis reveals that several streams are distributed around the high elevation areas (Fig.  4 ), showing a dominant radial drainage system albeit dendritic to the west. These streams are interpreted to flow in the north (mostly), east, west and south direction. They commonly flow away from the high elevation outcrops and residential areas before eventually flowing westward and eastward, where slope and elevation generally decrease (Fig.  4 ). In the west, they flow into low elevation areas in the watershed, where the flow is then re-routed northward through N–S oriented streams. This observation coincides with trends from previous studies which show that major rivers in the Idanre Hills area exhibit a general N–S orientation of flow, which is parallel to the foliation observed via field studies in the migmatite-gneisses of the Idanre Hills 36 . Accordingly, some stream segments near points 3 and 4 coincide with the ENE–WSW oriented lineaments (Fig.  8 ). Although this observation is not prevalent in the study area, it nevertheless shows the impact of lineaments in influencing drainage locally within the area. It also strengthens previous studies, which reveal that certain ENE–WSW oriented lineaments are sources of numerous springs, streams, and rivers within the Idanre Hills and surrounding areas 36 . The occurrence of lineament-influenced streams is not exclusive to the Idanre Hills area as similar relationships have been identified in other areas such as the Béré region of Ivory Coast 61 and India’s Pravara basin 21 .

Conceptual structural models

Observations from google earth images, although are not totally differentiated, suggest that the study area is deformed by lineaments, which may correspond to deeply buried, and through-going fractures. The lineaments are interpreted to be associated with other deformation features such as folds (domes) and shear zones (Fig.  12 a–c,e). The structural models in Fig.  12 e show that the rock masses have undergone various types of deformation, including compression, evidenced by folding and the dome-shaped morphologies. These rocks were likely folded because of any or combination of the following (a) folding in response to a dominant ENE-WSW compression, resulting in NNW-SSE fold axes trends (upper model in Fig.  12 e) and (b) large-scale shear tectonics associated with the last phases of the Pan-African orogeny. In a latter event, the folded rock masses were intersected by ENE-WSW oriented lineaments following a main NNW-SSE extension (Fig.  12 a,c,e). Consequently, the rock blocks close to points 5 and 6 locally appear to have moved relative to one another (Fig.  12 b). Here, we interpret this trend to reflect left-lateral (sinistral) type strike-slip faulting or shear motion and deformation of the rocks bounded by these lineaments as this appears to be a plausible explanation for the observed behavior in the absence of ground truth.

Caveats in the interpretation of lineaments and terrain attributes

This study highlights the effectiveness of integrating GIS techniques and google earth imagery for lineaments and terrain attributes mapping within the Idanre Hills area. However, it is important to mention the downsides of generating slope, elevation and stream networks of an area in the vicinity of settlements from rasterized google earth DSMs. For example, despite identifying settlements in low elevation and low slope portions surrounding the Idanre Hills peaks on google earth images, these same settlements are associated with high slope and high elevation values on our computed slope and elevation maps, respectively. Expectedly, low-lying areas would generally have low elevation and low slope when compared to the surrounding Idanre Hills, where outcrops are up to 900 m high. This observation reveals that the slope and elevation values derived for the settlement areas were most probably computed based on the analysis of the texture of the rasterized google earth DSM. This may as well have an impact on the terrain roughness values generated in the settlement areas.

Regarding the distribution of streams within low-lying areas such as where the settlements are located, we identified that the streams, which were automatically generated are distributed outwards away from the settlements. This is likely because the drainage algorithm recognized the settlements as high elevation and high slope areas (Fig.  7 a,b). Therefore, care must be taken while using google earth DSM to automatically extract drainage network in areas close to settlements. Similarly, stripes i.e., artefacts were identified in the western side of Fig.  2 a. These continuous stripes are acquisition footprints resulting from overlap of the aerial photographs, e.g., 62 , 63 and they were replicated on all the generated maps, including in Figs.  4 a, 5 (Hillshades), 6 (elevation and slope), and 7 (Hillshade). We suggest that the impacts of the stripes on lineament and terrain mapping are minimal as they are restricted to a limited portion of the data in the western part of the study area.

Conclusions

The approach used in this study is recommended for remote mapping of geological features in inaccessible locations, for initial-stage or first step geological field studies, and for planning prior to detailed field mapping and project execution. It is also recommended as a simple teaching guide to help students easily understand the distribution and behavior of lineaments and terrain characteristics within a given area.

The conclusions from this study are that:

Lineaments distribution, density and trend vary across the study area.

Lineament distribution and density are dependent on the underlying rock types.

Outcrops and lineaments are commonly associated with high terrain roughness values, indicating that lineaments with elevated surface roughness are widespread in the study area.

Drainage in the study area is partly lineament-controlled.

Google earth DSM should not be used in isolation but should be combined with other satellite data such as SRTM and ASTER DEM for more reliable remote mapping of geological features and importantly, terrain (e.g., slope, elevation and roughness) prior to ground truth.

Methods and workflow

The method used in this work is divided into two main parts (a) Data collection and (b) Data analysis.

Data collection, quality control and preparation

The data analysis part includes the download of DEM data from any open source GIS platform like Topex, GEBCO, USGS Explorer, OPENDEM, and Google Earth. In this study, the DEM of the study area, with a spatial resolution of 15 arc seconds , was download first from GEBCO ( www.gebco.net/ ) and gridded in golden software Surfer 16 (Fig.  1 a). Satellite or aerial photographs of the study area were later captured from google earth ( https://earth.google.com/web/ ), georeferenced, and exported as joint photographic expert group (JPEG) file (Fig.  2 ). The google earth images, obtained on 15-11-2021, have a spatial resolution of 4–10 m, which is enough to conduct regional geological studies. The JPEG file was uploaded into Esri’s ArcGIS 10.7.1 ArcMap prior to data analyses. To use the imported aerial photograph, it was first georeferenced in the correct coordinate projection in ArcMap i.e., Minna/Nigeria West Belt (EPSG:26391 with transformation: 1168). Rasterization of the aerial photo was done in ArcGIS through the sub-processes shown in Fig.  3 . The rasterization process involves conversion of the vector graphics format (JPEG) of the google earth image into a raster image (pixels or dots). An important aspect of the rasterization process is to update default setting in the environment tab in ArcMap to allow for optimum selection of the best resolution, storage, and cell size for the rasterized image. The google earth-derived image was the DSM on which further GIS analysis was performed using different tools available in ArcMap.

Data analysis

The data analysis is sub-divided into four parts (a) generation of stream network (b) lineaments mapping (c) terrain roughness index calculation, and (d) extraction of structural information from focused and high resolution google earth imageries (Fig.  3 ).

Generation of stream network

The stream network algorithm was built in the Spatial Analyst Tool (SAT) box in ArcMap (Fig.  3 ). First, the rasterized map was filled in ArcGIS using the Fill command, which fills sinks in a surface raster to remove small imperfections in the rasterized data 64 , 65 . A sink represents a cell with an undefined drainage direction. Afterwards, the flow direction and flow accumulation raster calculations were executed (Fig.  3 ) to (a) create a raster of flow direction from each cell to its downslope neighbor, or neighbors, using D8, Multiple Flow Direction (MFD) or D-Infinity (DINF) methods 66 and (b) to create a raster of accumulated flow into each cell. The flow accumulation tool calculates accumulated flow as the accumulated weight of all cells flowing into each downslope cell in the output raster 67 . The calculated Flow accumulation map was further classified into two groups of 0 to 5000 and 5001–371,000. Then, the map algebra was used to modify the final map as Flow accumulation of ≫  5000 i.e., the stream data. Subsequently, the watershed was delineated following the Basin command, which determines the contributing area above a set of cells in a raster and allowed all the drainage basins in the study area to be mapped (Fig. 3 ). To observe the influence or control of lineaments on the stream distribution and flow in the study area, the extracted stream network was overlain on the lineament map. This is important to assess areas where water or streams flow are influenced by fractures or cracks 68 .

Lineament extraction

To accurately identify lineaments in the study area, several topographic attributes such as Hillshade, Slope, Curvature, and Aspect were calculated (Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 and 6 ). The Hillshade attribute creates a shaded relief from a surface raster by considering the illumination source angle and shadows 69 . The aspect is derived from a raster surface and is useful for identifying the downslope direction of the maximum rate of change in value from each cell to its neighbors 70 . This is a useful attribute for validating stream trends from lineaments. In addition to the hillshade and aspect, the slope attribute was calculated to identify the gradient or rate of maximum change in z-value from each cell of the rasterized map. To optimize mapping of the lineaments, subsets of the derived hillshade map were generated as a function of azimuth and elevation. For this work, the light illumination azimuth angles of the shaded relief maps are 45°, 50°, 100°, 200°, 315°, and 345° respectively (Fig.  4 ). Furthermore, the lineaments were digitized on each hillshade manually following the approach of 71 . As linear cultural features such as roads and streams are not of interest here, we ensured they were not picked as lineaments by carefully picking only linear features which are geology-related. Moreover, the digitized stream network, watershed and roads were frequently compared to the suspected lineaments before the latter were digitized. Once the lineaments were digitized on all the hillshade maps, the extracted lineaments were again validated against the trend of streams, major and minor roads, and artifacts produced from the original rasterized map. Lineament density was subsequently calculated under the SAT following the density command and by choosing the option of ‘line density’. Importantly, the default parameters were changed to cover the study area alone. The lineament density (L d ) describes a 2-D concentration of lineaments within a given space and computed by dividing the total length of lineaments (Ll) by the area (A) under consideration 72 . The lineament density was calculated in square kilometers, while analyses of strike or trend of the lineament was done in Rockwork software.

Generation of terrain roughness

The Terrain Roughness Index (TRI) estimates the amount of elevation difference between adjacent cells of a DEM 73 . The TRI calculates the difference in elevation values from a center cell and the eight cells immediately surrounding it. Then it squares each of the eight elevation difference values to make them all positive, sums them, and takes the square root 73 , 74 . The TRI map is applicable for the characterization of geological terrains, modelling sediment transport, ecological studies, geomorphological evaluation of landforms, and landslide hazards assessment 73 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 . In the study area, the TRI was computed in two steps (Fig.  3 ). The Min (minimum), Max (Maximum) and Ave (Average) differences in elevation were first estimated using the ‘Neighborhood’ and ‘Focal statistics’ tools under SAT (Fig.  3 ). In a second step, the TRI was calculated by dividing the difference between the Ave and the Min by the difference between the Max and the Min (Fig.  3 ).

Extraction of Google Earth Images for structural mapping and features validation

The last step in the workflow is the extraction of geological and structural information from the Google earth imageries (Fig.  3 ). The five areas with prominent or striking structures observed in Fig.  2 were studied in both plan and 3-D view. In this step, the grids were defined over the study area in Google Earth pro. The five locations around the Idanre Hills were defined as Loc 1 to Loc 5 and saved as KML for subsequent use in Golden software Surfer 16. The coordinates of the defined grid were used to extract topographic information from both Topex ( https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi ) and in GEBCO ( www.gebco.net/ ). The topographic data from both sources were gridded in Surfer 16 using the Kriging method. The final elevation map was based on the Topex data since it provided more resolution of the topography. The elevation information was used for making selected topographic profiles across the 5 areas of interest. Pulsating structures from the five locations were further analyzed for their attitude in google earth, which formed the basis for the structural models in Fig.  12 . Resulting images were also used to validate results of terrain analysis in the study area.

Data availability

The images used in this study are available upon request and can be downloaded online using Google earth tools: https://earth.google.com/web/ . Elevation data can be downloaded from GEBCO: https://download.gebco.net/ and Topex global topographic data: https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi .

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Dr. Moses Strauss Department of Marine Geosciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

M. A. Lawal

Department of Geosciences, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria

A. O. Oshomoji

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A. A. Akinlalu & K. A. N. Adiat

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Lawal, M.A., Oshomoji, A.O., Akinlalu, A.A. et al. A simplified GIS and google-earth-based approach for lineaments and terrain attributes mapping in a basement complex terrain. Sci Rep 12 , 15801 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-20057-2

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Published : 22 September 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-20057-2

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