synthesis in critical writing

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Online Guide to Writing and Research Thinking Strategies and Writing Patterns

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• Online Guide to Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing

One of the basic academic writing activities is researching your topic and what others have said about it. Your goal should be to draw thoughts, observations, and claims about your topic from your research. We call this process of drawing from multiple sources “ synthesis .” Click on the accordion items below for more information.

Definition, Use, and Sample Synthesis

Synthesis defined.

Synthesis Emerges from Analysis

Synthesis emerges from analytical activities we discussed on the previous page: comparative analysis and analysis for cause and effect . For example, to communicate where scholars agree and where they disagree, one must analyze their work for similarities and differences. Also crucial for understanding scholarly discourse is understanding how a particular work of scholarship shapes the scholarship of others, causing them to head in new directions.

When Should Synthesis Be Used?

When to Use Synthesis

Many college assignments require synthesis. A literature review, for example, requires that you make explanatory claims regarding a body of research. These should go beyond summary (mere description) to provide helpful characterizations that aid in understanding. Literature reviews can stand on their own, but often they are a part of a research paper, and research papers are where you will probably use synthesis most often.

The purpose of a research paper is to derive meaning from a body of information collected through research. It is your job, as the writer, to communicate that meaning to your readers. Doing this requires that you develop an informed and educated opinion of what your research suggests about your subject. Communicating this opinion requires synthesis.

Sample Synthesis

In 1655, an embassy of Dutch Jews led by Rabbi Menassah ben Israel traveled to London to meet with the Commonwealth’s new Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. The informal “Readmission” of Jews—who had been expelled from England by royal edict in 1290—resulting from the Whitehall conference was once hailed as a high point in the history of toleration. Yet in recent years, scholars have increasingly challenged the progressive nature of this event, both in its substance and its motivation (Kaplan 2007; Katznelson 2010; Walsham 2006) . “Toleration” in this case, as in many others, did not entail religious freedom or civic equality; Jews in England were granted legal residency and permitted to worship privately, but citizenship, public worship, and the printing of anything that “opposeth the Christian religion” remained off the cards. As for its motivation, Edward Whalley’s twofold argument was representative: the Jews “will bring in much wealth into this Commonwealth: and where wee both pray for theyre conversion and beleeve it shal be, I knowe not why wee shold deny the means” (Marshall 2006, 381–82) 

(Bejan, 2015, p. 1103).

The author of the above passage, Teresa Bejan, has synthesized the work of a number of other scholars (Kaplan, Katznelson, Walsham, and Marshall) to situate her argument.  Note how not all of these scholars are directly quoted, but they are cited because their work forms the basis of Bejan's work.

Key Takeaways

• Synthesizing allows you to carry an argument or stance you adopt within a paper in your own words, based on conclusions you have come to about the topic.
• Synthesizing contributes to confidence about your stance and topic.

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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• StudySkills@Sheffield
• Research skills
• Critical approaches to information

How to synthesise information

Synthesising is the ability to integrate different sources effectively into your writing. You need to be able to synthesise in order to demonstrate a good understanding of the literature and to develop your own argument. This page will help you to understand and develop this key academic skill.

What is synthesising?

In academic writing it is important that you do not just list and describe a lot of individual studies. Instead, you should try to compare and contrast approaches, perspectives and viewpoints. This is particularly useful when writing a literature review.

Synthesising involves grouping sources based on similarities and differences.

As well as grouping writers, you may choose to group sources based on theory, ideas, research design, findings, interpretations, limitations and other criteria.

Look at the following example:

Hold-up theories proposed by Sharpe (1990), Rajan (1992), von Thadden (2004) and Kim et al. (2012) imply an alternative life-cycle profile for financing costs. In a two-period framework, the competition between banks prompts them to offer low borrowing rates to new firms in the first period.

Adapted from Ylhäinen (2017)

Book a writing advisory service appointment to review and get feedback your use of sources in synthesis and when building an academic argument.

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Why and how we synthesise

Why do we use synthesis in academic writing.

Some key reasons are:

• To demonstrate significant relationships between the sources.
• To identify similarities and differences between the sources.
• To group and present similar ideas or contrasting ideas.

Synthesising allows you to demonstrate your critical thinking in your writing. By identifying similarities and differences between theories, methods, findings, etc. and making these explicit to the reader, you are presenting ideas in relation to a wider context and in a more complex manner.

What do we need to consider when we are synthesising?

Here are a few things worth considering:

• Do the authors agree?
• Do the authors disagree?
• Do the authors agree on one point but disagree on another?
• Does one author develop an idea even more?
• Do you have a number of authors all with contrasting views?

Using a synthesis matrix

A synthesis matrix is a spreadsheet that organises your reading sources by theme and includes a synthesis column, where you can begin to draw out comparisons between the sources.

Once you have identified a number of sources for each theme in your matrix, you should be able to identify the following:

• Do the sources build on or develop one another (is this a chronological process)?
• Do the sources challenge or contradict one another? Do they reveal a debate within the field?
• Do the sources identify an area of particular interest or a gap in the field?
• Do the sources help to fill in gaps or complete a bigger picture?

The synthesis column provides an opportunity for you to comment on multiple sources considered as a whole. It is a space for your critical voice and interpretation, which is a key part of successful critical writing, especially in the literature review.

Explore an example of a synthesis matrix (FIU Writing Centre), and then use this synthesis matrix template (Google Sheet) to create your own. Make a copy of the template and save it on your own Google Drive.

Linking words and reporting verbs

Linking words/phrases and reporting verbs can help you to understand synthesising when reading and to synthesise effectively when writing, ensuring the connections between your sources are clear to the reader. Note the use of linking words/phrases (in bold ) and reporting verbs (underlined) in the following example:

“In her study, Smith (2006) concluded that there was a considerable difference in how the ancient humans used stone tools... Similarly , Roger’s (2006) research reported that there was indeed a link between humans’ habitat and what stone tools they used...”

Synthesis checklist

Use this checklist to evaluate the use of synthesis in your writing.

• Is the relationship between sources made clear?
• Are synthesis words or phrases used to combine two or more sources?
• Do the linking words and reporting verbs accurately summarise the relationship between more than one source?
• Is one source synthesised or otherwise used more than others?
• How to question information and think critically
• How to paraphrase and quote
• How to write a literature review

Ylhäinen, I. (2017) ‘Life-cycle Effects in Small Business Finance’. Journal of Banking & Finance ,  77, pp. 176-196.doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2017.01.008

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Evidence-Based Arguments: Synthesis

Paraphrasing and synthesis.

Synthesis is important in scholarly writing as it is the combination of ideas on a given topic or subject area. Synthesis is different from summary. Summary consists of a brief description of one idea, piece of text, etc. Synthesis involves combining ideas together.

Summary: Overview of important general information in your own words and sentence structure. Paraphrase: Articulation of a specific passage or idea in your own words and sentence structure. Synthesis: New interpretation of summarized or paraphrased details in your own words and sentence structure.

In the capstone, writers should aim for synthesis in all areas of the document, especially the literature review. Synthesis combines paraphrased information, where the writer presents information from multiple sources. Synthesis demonstrates scholarship; it demonstrates an understanding of the literature and information, as well as the writer’s ability to connect ideas and develop an argument.

Example Paraphrase

From allan and zed (2012, p. 195).

Supervision, one practice in transactional leadership theory, is especially effective for small business owners. Improved retention not only contributes to an efficient workplace, but it promotes local commercial stability and cultural unity. Other management styles informed by transactional theory can also benefit communities.

Sample Paraphrase

Allan and Zed (2012) noted that supervision and other transactional leadership strategies provide advantages for small business owners and their surrounding communities.

This paraphrase DOES:

• include the main idea,
• summarize the key information using fewer words than the original text, and
• include a citation to credit the source.

Synthesis Language

Synthesis is achieved by comparing and contrasting paraphrased information on a given topic. Discussions of the literature should be focused not on study-by-study summaries (see the Creating a Literature Review Outline SMRTguide). Writers should begin by using comparison language (indicated in bold and highlighted text in the examples below) to combine ideas on a given topic:

• Keller (2012) found that X occurred. Likewise, Daal (2013) found that X occurred but also noted that the effects of X differed from those suggested by Keller (2012).
• Schwester (2013) reported results consistent with findings in Hill’s (2011) and Yao’s (2012) studies.
• Although Mehmad (2012) suggested X, O’Donnell (2013) recommended a different approach.

Again, the focus of synthesis is to combine ideas on a given topic and for the writer to use that to review the existing literature or support an overall argument (i.e., in the problem statement, rationale and justification for the method, etc.).

For more information and examples on synthesis, paragraph structure, and the MEAL Plan strategy for writing review additional Form and Style resources:

• SMRTguide on Reverse Outlining and the MEAL Plan
• SMRTguide on Prioritizing Parenthetical Citations
• Reading to Write
• Previous Page: Quoting
• Next Page: MEAL Plan
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Library Guides

Critical thinking and writing: presenting your sources.

• Critical Thinking
• Problem Solving
• Critical Reading
• Critical Writing and Argumentation
• Presenting your Sources

An important element of critical writing is how you integrate, synthesise, evaluate and use supporting evidence. It is easy to fall into the trap of allowing your sources to stand alone in making a point for you or simply speaking for you. This guide, therefore, highlights some useful techniques for integrating sources in order to strengthen your criticality, ensuring that your voice is leading the argument and the evidence is back in its place of supporting you.

Contents of this page:

Using your Sources

How to introduce evidence, direct quotes, paraphrasing, summarising.

• Video: Summarising and Paraphrasing

Comparing Sources

Synthesising, video: synthesising text, evaluating evidence.

One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. Those ideas offer the foundations and evidence for your writing.

There are several ways to report sources:

Quote if you want to use the author’s words;

Paraphrase if you want to keep similar length;

Summarise if you want to make the text shorter;

Synthesise if you need to use information from several sources.  Synthesis  is generally the preferable way to report sources, as it shows your authorship in creating a logical text, organised by topic, referring to the relevant sources, with a commentary on them.

In all cases you need to acknowledge the author’s work with references , or you will be plagiarising.   

To properly introduce a source, follow those tips:

1) When quoting someone for the first time, remember to use their full name. After this, you can refer to them by their surname.

2) Express your voice by indicating to the reader whether you agree or disagree with a source, or are simply stating the evidence. You can for example vary the conjunction (as; although; despite...), preposition (according to; in line with; counter to...), reporting verb (states; claims; maintains; suggests; proposes; discusses...).

Look at the examples below and consider the words used. As a reader, would you think the writer is agreeing, disagreeing or simply neutral and stating what Smith says?

According to Smith "..."

As Smith points out "..."

Smith suggests that "..."

Although Smith claims that "..."

Quotations can be powerful and compelling, but should be sparse and careful lest making your writing fragmented and difficult to follow (unless you are undertaking textual analysis and need to directly cite a piece of writing). It is important to use quotations correctly, and the following tips can help you:   

• Before inserting a quote, make sure you understand what the quote means, the context in which it is said, and how it will apply to your own text.
• Always remember to introduce the quotation. Providing information, such as the author's name, the source of the quote, or a short summary, will help signpost the quotation and give a clearer indication of how the quote will be used in supporting your argument. 
• Use a variety of reporting verbs when introducing quotations. The way you introduce the quote will help orientate the reader to how you are interpreting and perceiving the quote. 
• As a rule of thumb, for quotations longer than three lines, separate these from the text, indent the whole quotation, remove quotation marks and make it single spaced. Anything shorter than this can remain within the text. 
• Make sure to discuss the quotation afterwards. The quote should never (or almost) stand alone as self-explanatory. Question what the quote means, what your view of it is and how it helps move your argument forward. 
• You can condense a quote by missing out words if it is not all relevant. Add [...] to indicate where the missing text of the quote should be. 
• Keep in mind that quotations are never meant to replace your own argument; they are merely there to support your argument. Do not allow them to stand in for your own voice. 

The marketing of luxury products is quite different to that of mass products. To begin with, the time frame is longer. As Kapferer and Bastien (2009, p. 313) aptly suggest, "one does not launch a luxury brand; one builds it progressively by managing the allocation of resources in a very specific way". For example, for luxury brands, advertising does not aim at immediate increases in sales; rather, it aims at fostering people's dreams, and the dreams can take years to turn into effective purchases of the advertised products. Therefore, luxury brands need a marketing strategy that considers the long term, rather than short-term gains. 

Paraphrasing is an effective way of using supporting evidence when we want to express the meaning of someone's work through our own words to achieve greater clarity. It is a useful way of demonstrating to your reader that you have understood the content of your supporting evidence and are able to translate another person's ideas into your own words. 

How to paraphrase

• Read and understand the section you wish to paraphrase.
•  Cover it up.
• Express verbally what you remember from the text. 
• Write down with your own words what you remember of the text. 
• Check the text to ensure you have reported the same meaning.
• If you need to add or amend anything, make sure you change the sentence structure and vocabulary of the original text (do not change specific, technical terminology).
• Make sure you reference the passage. 

Original text:

“But the sensation of roughness had almost entirely been ignored by scientists. Euclid, the Greek geometer whose Elements is the world’s oldest treatise with near-modern mathematical reasoning, focused on its opposite, smoothness. He and innumerable followers studied smoothness in exquisite detail. Lines, planes, and spheres are the matter of Euclidean geometry, as we are all taught in grade school. I love them; but they are concepts in men’s minds and works, not in the irregularity and complexity of nature” (Mandelbrot, 2008, pp. 123-124).

Paraphrase: 

Mandelbrot (2008, pp. 123-124) points out that the perception of roughness has generally been overlooked by scientists. Starting with the Greek Euclid, a pioneer of mathematical reasoning, for centuries geometry has been focusing on smooth and neatly drawn figures. This is the geometry we still study at school and are all familiar with. However, those smooth, perfect figures hardly exist in nature, which instead is pervaded by rough, irregular shapes.

Summarising text provides an abridged, shorter version of the original text.  

“But the sensation of roughness had almost entirely been ignored by scientists. Euclid, the Greek geometer whose  Elements  is the world’s oldest treatise with near-modern mathematical reasoning, focused on its opposite, smoothness. He and innumerable followers studied smoothness in exquisite detail. Lines, planes, and spheres are the matter of Euclidean geometry, as we are all taught in grade school. I love them; but they are concepts in men’s minds and works, not in the irregularity and complexity of nature” (Mandelbrot, 2008, p. 123-124).

Mandelbrot (2008, pp. 123-124) points out that Euclidean geometry studies extensively the concept of smooth and smooth shapes, but does not deal with roughness, which is in fact most common in nature.

Video on Summarising and Paraphrasing

Video on summary and paraphrase by Doug Specht, Senior Lecturer at the Westminster School of Media and Communication.

Comparing and contrasting is an effective way to show critical thinking and analysis of supporting evidence, particularly when you then continue by drawing your own conclusions from the evidence.

Ball (2005) argues that TV of a violent nature can influence children’s behaviour. However, Smart (2006) states that behaviour improves when parents watch too.  It is possible to argue, therefore that...

Note that the writer proves her critical analysis by suggesting a conclusion. Alternatively, the writer could bring in a third comparison that perhaps suggests another possible outcome or piece of evidence that supports Smart or Ball.

To strengthen the writing further, the writer could relate the comparison back to the topic sentence of the paragraph, demonstrating to the reader why this evidence is relevant in relation to what they are trying to argue in this paragraph, or throughout the essay as a whole.

Synthesis is an important element of academic writing, demonstrating comprehension, analysis, evaluation and original creation. 

• With synthesis you extract content from different sources to create an original text. While paraphrase and summary maintain the structure of the given source(s), with synthesis you create a new structure. 
• The sources will provide different perspectives and evidence on a topic. They will be put together when agreeing, contrasted when disagreeing. The sources must be referenced. 
• Perfect your synthesis showing the flow of your reasoning, expressing critical evaluation of the sources and drawing conclusions. 
• When you synthesise think of "using strategic thinking to resolve a problem requiring the integration of diverse pieces of information around a structuring theme" (Mateos and Sole 2009, p. 448).
• Synthesis is a complex activity, which requires an high degree of comprehension and active engagement with the subject. As you progress in higher education, so increase the expectations on your abilities to  synthesise .

How to synthesise:

• Identify themes/issues you'd like to discuss. These ideas can come from the texts you are reading.
• Read each text and look for information on the themes/issues you'd like to discuss. 
• Ask:  how does this text relate to others? Is it in agreement with other sources? Does it differ in its perspective? Is its supporting evidence holding up? 
• Write your synthesis with your own flow. 
• Put together sources stating the same point; distinguish sources presenting counter-arguments or different points. 
• Always provide the references.

The best synthesis require a "recursive process" whereby you read the source texts, identify relevant parts, take notes, produce drafts, re-read the source texts, revise your text, re-write... (Mateos and Sole, 2009)

What is good synthesis? 

The quality of your synthesis can be assessed considering the following (Mateos and Sole, 2009, p. 439): 

• Integration and connection of the information from the source texts around a structuring theme.
• Selection of ideas necessary for producing the synthesis.
• Appropriateness of the interpretation, e.g. absence of incorrect content. 
• Elaboration of the content. 

Original texts (fictitious):

Animal experimentation is a subject of heated debate. Some argue that painful experiments should be banned. Indeed it has been demonstrated that such experiments make animals suffer physically and psychologically (Chowdhury, 2012; Panatta and Hudson, 2016). On the other hand, it has been argued that animal experimentation can save human lives and reduce harm on humans (Smith, 2008). This argument is only valid for toxicological testing, not for tests that, for example, merely improve the efficacy of a cosmetic (Turner, 2015). It can be suggested that animal experimentation should be regulated to only allow toxicological risk assessment, and the suffering to the animals should be minimised.  

Doug Specht, Senior Lecturer at the Westminster School of Media and Communication, explains synthesis for us in the following video . 

An essential element of critical thinking, reading and writing is to evaluate the evidence you encounter. The basis of the evaluation can be, for example, the validity, reliability, methodology, date of the study in question. 

Smith and Fry (2020) label online learning at the University of Ketchup as a success. However, their conclusions are based on interviews with teaching staff and the University management. The authors failed to investigate the students' views on online learning at the University. Therefore, a major measure of such purported success was not considered by Smith and Fry's study. 

In this example, the writer has considered the study carried out by Smith and Fry and suggests a limitation to the study's methodology that may have caused biased results. By suggesting a limitation, the writer has not taken the study for granted, accepting the results without critically analysing and questioning the validity of the study. 

Bibliography

Bottomley, J. 2015. Academic Writing for International  Students of Science , London: Routledge.

Kapferer, J. and Bastien, V. (2009). The specificity of luxury management: Turning marketing upside down.  Journal of Brand Management , 16(5-6), pp.311-322.

Mandelbrot, B. and Hudson, R. (2008).  The (Mis)Behaviour of Markets . London: Profile Books.

Mateos, M. and Solé, I. (2009). Synthesising information from various texts: A study of procedures and products at different educational levels.  European Journal of Psychology of Education , 24(4), pp.435-451.

Workshop Slides

• Referencing, Paraphrasing, and Synthesising
• << Previous: Critical Writing and Argumentation
• Last Updated: Oct 8, 2024 1:48 PM
• URL: https://libguides.westminster.ac.uk/critical-thinking-and-writing

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What is Synthesis?

Here are some ways to think about synthesis:

Synthesis blends claims, evidence, and your unique insights to create a strong, unified paragraph. Assertions act as the threads, evidence adds texture, and your commentary weaves them together, revealing the connections and why they matter.

Beyond the sum of its parts: Synthesis isn't just adding one and one. It's recognizing how multiple sources, through their connections and relationships, create a deeper understanding than any single one could achieve.

Synthesis isn't just about what sources say, it's about how they say it. By digging into assumptions, interpretations, and even speculations, you uncover hidden connections and build a more nuanced picture.

Whereas analyzing involves dismantling a whole to understand its parts and their relationships, synthesizing involves collecting diverse parts and weaving them together to form a novel whole. Reading is an automatic synthesis process, where we connect incoming information with our existing knowledge, constructing a new, expanded "whole" of our understanding in the subject area.

You've been doing synthesis for a long time, the key now is being aware and organized in the process.

• Sharpen your research direction: Be clear about your main objective. This guides your reading and analysis to make the most of your time.
• Build a strong foundation: Use trusted sources like peer-reviewed journals, academic books, and reputable websites. Diverse sources add strength and credibility to your research.

Then Organize your Research:

• Dig deep and connect the dots: While reading, highlight key ideas, arguments, and evidence. Mark potential links between sources, like overlaps or contrasting arguments.
• Organize ideas by neighborhood: Group sources with similar themes or angles on your topic. This will show you where sources agree or clash, helping you build a nuanced understanding.
• Build a mind map of your research: Create a table of key themes, listing key points from each source and how they connect. This visual map can reveal patterns and identify any missing pieces in your research.

Finally, Build your synthesis:

• Lay out the groundwork: Kick off each section with a clear claim or theme to guide your analysis.
• Weave sources together: Briefly explain what each source brings to the table, smoothly connecting their ideas with transitions and language.
• Embrace the debate: Don't tiptoe around differences. Point out where sources agree or clash, and explore possible reasons for these discrepancies.
• Dig deeper than surface facts: Don't just parrot findings. Explain what they mean and how they impact your topic.
• Add your voice to the mix: Go beyond reporting. Analyze, evaluate, and draw conclusions based on your synthesis. What does this research tell us?

Tips & Tricks:

• Let the evidence do the talking: Back up your claims with concrete details, quotes, and examples from your sources. No need for personal opinions, just let the facts speak for themselves.
• Play fair with opposing views: Be objective and present different perspectives without showing favoritism. Even if you disagree, let readers see the other side of the coin.
• Give credit where credit is due: Make sure your sources get the recognition they deserve with proper citations, following your chosen style guide consistently.
• Polish your masterpiece: Take some time to revise and proofread your work. Ensure your arguments are crystal clear, concise, and well-supported by the evidence.
• Embrace the growth mindset: Remember, research and synthesis are a journey, not a destination. Keep refining your analysis as you learn more and encounter new information. The more you explore, the deeper your understanding will become.

Demonstrates how two or more sources agree with one another.

The collaborative nature of writing tutorials has been discussed by scholars like Andrea Lunsford (1991) and Stephen North (1984). In these essays, they explore the usefulness and the complexities of collaboration between tutors and students in writing center contexts.

Demonstrates how two or more sources support a main point in different ways.

While some scholars like Berlin (1987) have primarily placed their focus on the histories of large, famous universities, other scholars like Yahner and Murdick (1991) have found value in connecting their local histories to contrast or highlight trends found in bigger-name universities.

Accumulation

Demonstrates how one source builds on the idea of another.

Although North’s (1984) essay is fundamental to many writing centers today, Lunsford (1991) takes his ideas a step further by identifying different writing center models and also expanding North’s ideas on how writing centers can help students become better writers.

Demonstrates how one source discusses the effects of another source’s ideas.

While Healy (2001) notes the concerns of having primarily email appointments in writing centers, he also notes that constraints like funding, resources, and time affect how online resources are formed. For writing centers, email is the most economical and practical option for those wanting to offer online services but cannot dedicate the time or money to other online tutoring methods. As a result, in Neaderheiser and Wolfe’s (2009) reveals that of all the online options available in higher education, over 91% of institutions utilize online tutoring through email, meaning these constraints significantly affect the types of services writing centers offer.

[Taken from University of Illinois, "Synthesizing Research "]

The Writing Center at University of Arizona showcases how to create and use a synthesis matrix when reading sources and taking notes. It is a great, organized way to synthesize your research.

You can find it here .

Creativity in researching begins with developing a thorough understanding of your research topic; this is fundamental to streamlining the process and enriching your findings. This entails delving into its intricacies—exploring both similarities and divergences with related subject areas. Consider the most appropriate sources (and types of sources) for your study, critically engaging with all perspectives, and acknowledging the complex interplay between its positives, negatives, and broader connections.

Embrace interdisciplinary exploration. Delve deeper through transdisciplinary analysis, venturing beyond the immediate field to parallel professions and diverse academic arenas. Consider comparative studies from other cultural contexts to add fresh perspectives.

For example, researching rule changes in the NFL demands a nuanced approach. One might investigate the link to Traumatic Brain Injury, analyze case studies of impacted players, and even examine rule adjustments in other sports, drawing insights from their rationale and outcomes.

Remember, librarians are invaluable partners in this process. Their expertise in creative thinking and resource navigation can unlock a wealth of information, guiding you towards fruitful discoveries.

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• Last Updated: Oct 15, 2024 3:47 PM
• URL: https://library.taylor.edu/professional-writing

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