research on critical thinking in the classroom

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Integrating Critical Thinking Into the Classroom

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(This is the second post in a three-part series. You can see Part One here .)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

Part One ‘s guests were Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Today, Dr. Kulvarn Atwal, Elena Quagliarello, Dr. Donna Wilson, and Diane Dahl share their recommendations.

‘Learning Conversations’

Dr. Kulvarn Atwal is currently the executive head teacher of two large primary schools in the London borough of Redbridge. Dr. Atwal is the author of The Thinking School: Developing a Dynamic Learning Community , published by John Catt Educational. Follow him on Twitter @Thinkingschool2 :

In many classrooms I visit, students’ primary focus is on what they are expected to do and how it will be measured. It seems that we are becoming successful at producing students who are able to jump through hoops and pass tests. But are we producing children that are positive about teaching and learning and can think critically and creatively? Consider your classroom environment and the extent to which you employ strategies that develop students’ critical-thinking skills and their self-esteem as learners.

Development of self-esteem

One of the most significant factors that impacts students’ engagement and achievement in learning in your classroom is their self-esteem. In this context, self-esteem can be viewed to be the difference between how they perceive themselves as a learner (perceived self) and what they consider to be the ideal learner (ideal self). This ideal self may reflect the child that is associated or seen to be the smartest in the class. Your aim must be to raise students’ self-esteem. To do this, you have to demonstrate that effort, not ability, leads to success. Your language and interactions in the classroom, therefore, have to be aspirational—that if children persist with something, they will achieve.

Use of evaluative praise

Ensure that when you are praising students, you are making explicit links to a child’s critical thinking and/or development. This will enable them to build their understanding of what factors are supporting them in their learning. For example, often when we give feedback to students, we may simply say, “Well done” or “Good answer.” However, are the students actually aware of what they did well or what was good about their answer? Make sure you make explicit what the student has done well and where that links to prior learning. How do you value students’ critical thinking—do you praise their thinking and demonstrate how it helps them improve their learning?

Learning conversations to encourage deeper thinking

We often feel as teachers that we have to provide feedback to every students’ response, but this can limit children’s thinking. Encourage students in your class to engage in learning conversations with each other. Give as many opportunities as possible to students to build on the responses of others. Facilitate chains of dialogue by inviting students to give feedback to each other. The teacher’s role is, therefore, to facilitate this dialogue and select each individual student to give feedback to others. It may also mean that you do not always need to respond at all to a student’s answer.

Teacher modelling own thinking

We cannot expect students to develop critical-thinking skills if we aren’t modeling those thinking skills for them. Share your creativity, imagination, and thinking skills with the students and you will nurture creative, imaginative critical thinkers. Model the language you want students to learn and think about. Share what you feel about the learning activities your students are participating in as well as the thinking you are engaging in. Your own thinking and learning will add to the discussions in the classroom and encourage students to share their own thinking.

Metacognitive questioning

Consider the extent to which your questioning encourages students to think about their thinking, and therefore, learn about learning! Through asking metacognitive questions, you will enable your students to have a better understanding of the learning process, as well as their own self-reflections as learners. Example questions may include:

• Why did you choose to do it that way?
• When you find something tricky, what helps you?
• How do you know when you have really learned something?

‘Adventures of Discovery’

Elena Quagliarello is the senior editor of education for Scholastic News , a current events magazine for students in grades 3–6. She graduated from Rutgers University, where she studied English and earned her master’s degree in elementary education. She is a certified K–12 teacher and previously taught middle school English/language arts for five years:

Critical thinking blasts through the surface level of a topic. It reaches beyond the who and the what and launches students on a learning journey that ultimately unlocks a deeper level of understanding. Teaching students how to think critically helps them turn information into knowledge and knowledge into wisdom. In the classroom, critical thinking teaches students how to ask and answer the questions needed to read the world. Whether it’s a story, news article, photo, video, advertisement, or another form of media, students can use the following critical-thinking strategies to dig beyond the surface and uncover a wealth of knowledge.

A Layered Learning Approach

Begin by having students read a story, article, or analyze a piece of media. Then have them excavate and explore its various layers of meaning. First, ask students to think about the literal meaning of what they just read. For example, if students read an article about the desegregation of public schools during the 1950s, they should be able to answer questions such as: Who was involved? What happened? Where did it happen? Which details are important? This is the first layer of critical thinking: reading comprehension. Do students understand the passage at its most basic level?

Ask the Tough Questions

The next layer delves deeper and starts to uncover the author’s purpose and craft. Teach students to ask the tough questions: What information is included? What or who is left out? How does word choice influence the reader? What perspective is represented? What values or people are marginalized? These questions force students to critically analyze the choices behind the final product. In today’s age of fast-paced, easily accessible information, it is essential to teach students how to critically examine the information they consume. The goal is to equip students with the mindset to ask these questions on their own.

Strike Gold

The deepest layer of critical thinking comes from having students take a step back to think about the big picture. This level of thinking is no longer focused on the text itself but rather its real-world implications. Students explore questions such as: Why does this matter? What lesson have I learned? How can this lesson be applied to other situations? Students truly engage in critical thinking when they are able to reflect on their thinking and apply their knowledge to a new situation. This step has the power to transform knowledge into wisdom.

Adventures of Discovery

There are vast ways to spark critical thinking in the classroom. Here are a few other ideas:

• Critical Expressionism: In this expanded response to reading from a critical stance, students are encouraged to respond through forms of artistic interpretations, dramatizations, singing, sketching, designing projects, or other multimodal responses. For example, students might read an article and then create a podcast about it or read a story and then act it out.
• Transmediations: This activity requires students to take an article or story and transform it into something new. For example, they might turn a news article into a cartoon or turn a story into a poem. Alternatively, students may rewrite a story by changing some of its elements, such as the setting or time period.
• Words Into Action: In this type of activity, students are encouraged to take action and bring about change. Students might read an article about endangered orangutans and the effects of habitat loss caused by deforestation and be inspired to check the labels on products for palm oil. They might then write a letter asking companies how they make sure the palm oil they use doesn’t hurt rain forests.
• Socratic Seminars: In this student-led discussion strategy, students pose thought-provoking questions to each other about a topic. They listen closely to each other’s comments and think critically about different perspectives.
• Classroom Debates: Aside from sparking a lively conversation, classroom debates naturally embed critical-thinking skills by asking students to formulate and support their own opinions and consider and respond to opposing viewpoints.

Critical thinking has the power to launch students on unforgettable learning experiences while helping them develop new habits of thought, reflection, and inquiry. Developing these skills prepares students to examine issues of power and promote transformative change in the world around them.

‘Quote Analysis’

Dr. Donna Wilson is a psychologist and the author of 20 books, including Developing Growth Mindsets , Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , and Five Big Ideas for Effective Teaching (2 nd Edition). She is an international speaker who has worked in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Europe, Jamaica, and throughout the U.S. and Canada. Dr. Wilson can be reached at [email protected] ; visit her website at www.brainsmart.org .

Diane Dahl has been a teacher for 13 years, having taught grades 2-4 throughout her career. Mrs. Dahl currently teaches 3rd and 4th grade GT-ELAR/SS in Lovejoy ISD in Fairview, Texas. Follow her on Twitter at @DahlD, and visit her website at www.fortheloveofteaching.net :

A growing body of research over the past several decades indicates that teaching students how to be better thinkers is a great way to support them to be more successful at school and beyond. In the book, Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , Dr. Wilson shares research and many motivational strategies, activities, and lesson ideas that assist students to think at higher levels. Five key strategies from the book are as follows:

• Facilitate conversation about why it is important to think critically at school and in other contexts of life. Ideally, every student will have a contribution to make to the discussion over time.
• Begin teaching thinking skills early in the school year and as a daily part of class.
• As this instruction begins, introduce students to the concept of brain plasticity and how their brilliant brains change during thinking and learning. This can be highly motivational for students who do not yet believe they are good thinkers!
• Explicitly teach students how to use the thinking skills.
• Facilitate student understanding of how the thinking skills they are learning relate to their lives at school and in other contexts.

Below are two lessons that support critical thinking, which can be defined as the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Mrs. Dahl prepares her 3rd and 4th grade classes for a year of critical thinking using quote analysis .

During Native American studies, her 4 th grade analyzes a Tuscarora quote: “Man has responsibility, not power.” Since students already know how the Native Americans’ land had been stolen, it doesn’t take much for them to make the logical leaps. Critical-thought prompts take their thinking even deeper, especially at the beginning of the year when many need scaffolding. Some prompts include:

• … from the point of view of the Native Americans?
• … from the point of view of the settlers?
• How do you think your life might change over time as a result?
• Can you relate this quote to anything else in history?

Analyzing a topic from occupational points of view is an incredibly powerful critical-thinking tool. After learning about the Mexican-American War, Mrs. Dahl’s students worked in groups to choose an occupation with which to analyze the war. The chosen occupations were: anthropologist, mathematician, historian, archaeologist, cartographer, and economist. Then each individual within each group chose a different critical-thinking skill to focus on. Finally, they worked together to decide how their occupation would view the war using each skill.

For example, here is what each student in the economist group wrote:

• When U.S.A. invaded Mexico for land and won, Mexico ended up losing income from the settlements of Jose de Escandon. The U.S.A. thought that they were gaining possible tradable land, while Mexico thought that they were losing precious land and resources.
• Whenever Texas joined the states, their GDP skyrocketed. Then they went to war and spent money on supplies. When the war was resolving, Texas sold some of their land to New Mexico for $10 million. This allowed Texas to pay off their debt to the U.S., improving their relationship.
• A detail that converged into the Mexican-American War was that Mexico and the U.S. disagreed on the Texas border. With the resulting treaty, Texas ended up gaining more land and economic resources.
• Texas gained land from Mexico since both countries disagreed on borders. Texas sold land to New Mexico, which made Texas more economically structured and allowed them to pay off their debt.

This was the first time that students had ever used the occupations technique. Mrs. Dahl was astonished at how many times the kids used these critical skills in other areas moving forward.

Thanks to Dr. Auwal, Elena, Dr. Wilson, and Diane for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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• Published: 17 October 2024

Enhancing student critical thinking and learning outcomes through innovative pedagogical approaches in higher education: the mediating role of inclusive leadership

• Tariq Mehmood Bhuttah 1 ,
• Qian Xusheng 1 ,
• Muhammad Naseem Abid 2 &
• Sonia Sharma 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  24362 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

• Climate sciences

This quantitative study examines the influence of innovative pedagogical approaches (IPA) on enhancing student critical thinking (SCT) and student learning outcomes (SLO) in higher education, with an emphasis on the mediating role of inclusive leadership(IL). Using a sample of 321 students from public and private universities in Pakistan, the research reveals that methods such as problem-based learning, flipped classrooms, and interactive teaching significantly boost academic performance and cultivate critical thinking skills. The findings indicate that innovative pedagogical approaches positively and significantly impact student critical thinking (β = 0.536, t = 6.539, p  < 0.001) and learning outcomes (β = 0.551, t = 12.725, p  < 0.001). Additionally, inclusive leadership mediates the relationship between innovative teaching methods and both student critical thinking (β = 0.331, t = 3.833, p  < 0.001) and learning outcomes (β = 0.405, t = 8.662, p  < 0.001). Data were collected using survey questionnaires adapted from established studies on inclusive leadership, innovative pedagogical approaches, student critical thinking, and learning outcomes. These results highlight the essential role of inclusive leadership in enhancing the efficacy of innovative pedagogies by creating a supportive and diverse learning environment. The study suggests that implementing active learning strategies and integrating technology in the classroom, along with inclusive leadership practices, can significantly improve student engagement, critical thinking, and overall academic performance. This research offers valuable insights for educators and policymakers seeking to enhance teaching and learning experiences in higher education.

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Introduction.

Exploring pedagogical approaches is essential to meet the evolving needs of students and create a more engaging learning environment. Higher education is a critical stage, laying the foundation for future academic and professional pursuits. A contribution to the discussion of pedagogical approaches and their effectiveness in higher education can be found in 1 which emphasizes constructive alignment as a key component of teaching in higher education. Active learning strategies and their impact on student engagement and learning outcomes were reviewed by 2 . In 3 investigated innovative course design and teaching strategies for creating meaningful learning experiences in higher education. Student retention and success in higher education are stressed by 4 , who emphasizes the importance of engaging and supportive pedagogical approaches. However, many educational systems still rely on traditional teaching methods that often fail to effectively engage students, particularly in STEM subjects, where theory is frequently prioritized over practical, hands-on learning 5 , 6 .

Recent studies highlight the benefits of innovative teaching methods in various contexts.

For example, problem-based learning in STEM education in China has been shown to enhance students’ creativity and entrepreneurship 7 . In contrast, project-based learning in Indonesia has improved content knowledge and problem-solving skills in seismology 8 . These examples underscore the need to examine the impact of modern pedagogical approaches on student performance, as traditional methods may not fully address the diverse needs of today’s learners 9 . A recent study by 10 proved that various teaching methods, including technology integration impact students’ achievement and learning outcomes. Technology-supported interventions significantly improve reading outcomes, demonstrating enhancements and improvements in student achievement 11 .

Interactive teaching methods actively involve students in learning, encouraging participation, collaboration, and critical thinking 12 , Unlike traditional lectures, these methods use activities such as discussions, group work, simulations, and problem-solving to help students construct knowledge rather than passively receive it 13 . Research shows that these methods improve learning outcomes at the university level, promoting deep learning, critical thinking, and higher-order skills like analysis and evaluation. They also increase student engagement, motivation, and knowledge retention, while fostering essential skills for the modern workforce, such as collaboration and communication. For instance 14 , revealed that active learning approaches, such as interactive teaching methods, led to higher exam scores and lower failure rates compared to traditional lectures. Similarly 15 , found that students in interactive classrooms excelled in concept retention and problem-solving skills compared to those in traditional settings. Beyond academic performance, interactive teaching methods positively influence various aspects of student development.

Lecture-based teaching has long dominated higher education in these countries. However, with evolving pedagogical perspectives and technology integration, interactive teaching methods are increasingly recognized for enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes 16 . Research in South Asia shows that these methods positively impact university students, fostering higher-order cognitive skills, critical thinking, and deep learning, which are vital for academic and professional success. For instance, studies from Pakistan and India highlight that interactive methods like problem-based learning, collaborative learning, and flipped classrooms improve student performance, engagement, and critical thinking skills 17 . In 18 note that innovative learning models play a crucial role in advancing educational transformation and improving outcomes. According to UNESCO (2017), these models enhance the quality and relevance of education, making it more effective, accessible, and sustainable, while also helping bridge the digital divide and promoting equitable access. In higher education institutions (HEIs), leadership often defines key performance indicators (KPIs) to measure employee and institutional performance, ensuring inclusivity through discussions between leaders and staff. While leadership significantly influences standards and performance, the predominant approach in HEIs remains top-down, as observed in leadership studies 19 , 20 . Innovative pedagogical approaches have recently garnered considerable attention as key strategies for improving critical thinking and learning outcomes in higher education. These methods, such as problem-based learning, flipped classrooms, and technology integration, aim to foster more engaging and effective learning environments. In 21 described various PBL methods and their benefits, including improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In 22 examined the role of inquiry-based learning in developing critical thinking and cognitive skills. Similarly 23 , highlighted the role of inquiry-based learning to enhance students’ cognitive and metacognitive skills.

Hypotheses development and research model

Innovative pedagogical approaches and critical thinking.

Innovative pedagogical approaches can enhance students’ critical thinking and learning outcomes. To create a learning environment that fosters deeper understanding and better retention of knowledge, educators need to integrate methods that promote active engagement, problem-solving, and higher-order thinking. Teaching methods such as inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, and problem-oriented learning encourage students to question, analyze, and synthesize information rather than passively receive it. As 24 explain, these approaches require students to conduct sustained research and collaborate, which enhances their critical and creative thinking abilities.

Several studies have explored how gamification, which incorporates game-like elements into educational settings, can boost student engagement, motivation, and critical thinking. Cooperative learning enhances critical thinking and learning outcomes in higher education 25 . Learning through experience fosters critical thinking and deeper understanding. A combination of experiential learning and critical thinking enhances learning outcomes 26 . By combining community service with academic study, students improve their critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and overall learning outcomes 27 . Additionally, design-based research supports the development of effective pedagogical approaches that enhance critical thinking 28 .

The literature indicates that innovative pedagogical approaches can greatly enhance students’ critical thinking skills. Problem-based learning (PBL), for instance, involves students tackling real-world challenges, thereby fostering higher-order thinking 29 . Similarly, flipped classrooms, where students study lecture content at home and engage in interactive activities during class, have been shown to promote critical thinking by providing more time for discussion and practical application of knowledge 30 . These approaches go beyond rote memorization, encouraging students to analyze, evaluate, and generate new ideas 31 .

Learning outcomes in higher education

The positive impact of innovative pedagogical approaches on learning outcomes is well-documented. Research shows active learning strategies, including collaborative projects and interactive simulations, enhance student retention and comprehension 32 . For example, active learning boosts student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics courses. These methods often result in better academic outcomes, increased student engagement, and more positive attitudes toward learning 33 .

Active learning strategies like flipped classrooms and collaborative learning have improved students’ academic performance. According to 34 , students enrolled in active learning environments achieved higher exam scores and lower failure rates than those enrolled in traditional lecture-based instruction. As a result of active learning, there is more interaction and feedback.

In addition to providing students with real-world problems to solve and promotes deep learning and improves students’ ability to think critically and solve problems. Using team-based problem-solving scenarios 35 , stated that PBL fosters critical thinking and collaboration. As 36 explore, flipped classroom models promote critical thinking by shifting instruction outside of the classroom and allowing more time for interactive and analytical activities. Using flipped classroom approaches 37 , examine the impact of these approaches on students’ academic performance and critical thinking skills.

Inquiry-based learning, including problem-based learning, enhances critical thinking by fostering student self-direction and inquiry. found that learning approaches positively impacted students’ critical thinking. According to 38 , collaborative learning strategies such as group discussions and peer teaching foster deeper engagement and reflection among students, thus contributing to enhanced critical thinking. Technology-supported collaborative learning environments can improve critical thinking through shared knowledge construction 39 . Students can foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills by integrating technology into education 40 .

Mediating role of inclusive leadership

Inclusive leadership is vital for the effective implementation of innovative pedagogical approaches. Inclusive leaders cultivate environments that value diversity and encourage full participation from all students 41 . This type of leadership is key to creating an inclusive classroom culture where innovative teaching methods can flourish. Research by 42 emphasizes that inclusive leadership practices, such as acknowledging individual contributions and promoting open communication, enhance the effectiveness of innovative pedagogies by ensuring all students feel supported and valued.

The role of inclusive leadership is crucial in translating innovative pedagogical practices into improved critical thinking and learning outcomes. Inclusive leaders foster a supportive, diverse environment that encourages active participation, which is essential for the success of these teaching methods 43 . According to 44 , leadership practices that emphasize inclusivity can bridge the gap between innovative pedagogies and student outcomes, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to engage with and benefit from these approaches.

Leadership plays a critical role in any sector, according to research by 45 . In the educational sector, leadership plays an important role in improving the performance of the institution and employees, particularly faculty members. A high level of motivation is present among the leadership as they strive to fulfill their board-assigned goals and tasks. Leadership tasks, however, can be accomplished by teachers, since they are the key stakeholders. As a result 46 , report that the management’s less productive attitudes can hinder the teachers’ performance. Teachers’ teaching assistants need all kinds of resources, which the management arranges for them.

As universities embrace digitalization, universities are also responsible for adopting new technologies and assisting teachers in using them. Moreover 47 , showed that positive management behavior influences teachers’ performance through the development of understanding. Less productive coordination between management and instructors, however, can negatively affect learners’ performance. Positive relationships between teachers and management can lead to improved student learning 48 . According to 49 , the university administration needs to motivate the teachers to adopt the new methods so they can do the appropriate job for the learners. Teachers’ performance can be adversely affected if more attention is not paid to available resources, and students’ performance may also be adversely affected. As shown in the study by 50 , the availability of the necessary resources can improve the performance of teachers with an integrating attitude.

To improve student learning, teachers should adopt new methodologies and practices, and they should have a positive attitude towards it. A study by 51 concluded that teachers’ innovative input can provide students with a reliable working attitude toward their learning performance. Students’ performance is enhanced more innovatively when teachers use critical working methods. The leadership of the institute is responsible for providing teachers with all resources and instruments they might need to perform well. Despite this 52 , claim that innovative teaching methods are essential to standardizing students to meet modern learning requirements at every level of education.

Objectives and hypothesis of the study

To study Innovative pedagogies approach impact on student’s critical thinking.

Innovative pedagogies approach positively and significantly impact student critical thinking.

To study Innovative pedagogical approaches impact student learning outcomes.

Innovative pedagogical approaches positively and significantly impact student learning outcomes.

To study relationship of innovative pedagogies approaches on student critical thinking as mediated by inclusive leadership.

A positive and significant relationship between innovative pedagogies approaches and student critical thinking is mediated by inclusive leadership.

To study inclusive leadership mediation role between innovative pedagogical approaches and student learning outcomes.

Inclusive leadership mediates a positive and significant relationship between innovative pedagogical approaches and student learning outcomes.

Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework demonstrates how innovative pedagogical approaches (e.g., active learning, group discussions, problem-solving activities) relate to an independent variable while the dependent variable reflects student learning outcomes (e.g., academic performance, motivation, critical thinking skills) at a university level in Lahore, Pakistan, using inclusive leadership as a mediator.

Based on the framework shown in Fig.  1 , teachers can positively influence student learning outcomes by employing interactive teaching methods and pedagogical approaches in the classroom. Engaging students, facilitating active participation, and fostering collaborative learning can enhance academic performance, motivation, and critical thinking skills 53 .

In 54 discussed the characteristics of inclusive leadership and its potential to create supportive environments that enhance the implementation of innovative pedagogical approaches. The role of inclusive leadership supports the implementation of innovative pedagogies by fostering an environment that values diverse perspectives and collaborative learning. In 55 provided insights into how inclusive leadership can enhance the effectiveness of various initiatives by creating a supportive environment, which can be analogous to its role in educational settings. In 56 examined the role of inclusive leadership can mediate the relationship between leadership practices and innovative behaviors, suggesting a similar mediation process for pedagogical approaches in education.

Research model for this study, Source(s): Author’s creation.

Methodology

Data collection, participants, and procedure.

In this research, “quantitative data” is gathered to support findings and hypotheses. The study used Simple Random Sampling to select a sample of 321 students. First, all employed undergraduate and graduate students at selected public and private universities in Pakistan were listed, totaling 400 students. Each student was then assigned a unique number from 1 to 400. To ensure random selection, a random number generator was used to pick 321 unique numbers within this range. The students corresponding to these numbers were chosen for the sample. This approach ensures that every student has an equal chance of being selected, making the sample more representative and reliable. Survey questionnaires were then distributed to the 321 randomly chosen students to collect data for analysis.

A summary of respondents’ characteristics is shown in Table  1 .

The data for this research was collected using measurement scales that were adopted from previous studies. Before collecting the data, these studies were carefully reviewed to ensure that they fit the context of the current research. The items used in the questionnaire were evaluated for their validity and reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha being used to check these factors. For data analysis and to provide empirical evidence, the software Smart-PLS 4.0 was used.

Ethical statement

All methods employed in this study were carried out in strict adherence to relevant guidelines and regulations. The research complied with local laws, and institutional requirements, and has been approved by the University of Education, Dr. Muhammad Amin Ethical Research Review Committee (No: UE-May-2024-106).

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants before their involvement, ensuring their rights to voluntary participation, anonymity, and the option to withdraw at any time. The research design was meticulously developed to respect and protect the rights and well-being of every participant.

The data for this study were gathered using questionnaires adapted from well-regarded previous research on inclusive leadership, project success, and self-efficacy. The variables under investigation were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, where respondents rated their level of agreement from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with the following scale: 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. Additionally, demographic information, including gender, age, qualifications, faculty, university sector, and experience of the respondents, was collected to supplement the analysis.

Innovative pedagogies approaches

To assess Innovative Pedagogical Approaches (IPA), we utilized a tool developed by S. Prakash in 2012, titled “Attitude Towards Innovative Teaching Methods – Student’s Perspective,” which was presented at a conference. The scale comprised ten items: five related to teacher perceptions and five to student perceptions. As part of this study, we adopted only five items related to student perceptions of innovative pedagogies.

Student critical thinking scale

This study utilized the Critical Thinking Questionnaire (CThQ) developed by 57 . The original questionnaire consisted of six dimensions and 25 items; however, we adopted one item from each dimension, totaling six items. The SCT tool had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.729, indicating that it was valid.

Student learning outcomes scale

To measure (SLO) for this study, we measured the student academic achievement scale using six items adapted by King et al. (2012) from the original Inventory of School Motivation (ISM) created by McInerney et al. (1997). The 43-item questionnaire is designed to assess four types of achievement goals: mastery (task and effort), performance (competition and social power), social (affiliation and social concern), and extrinsic (praise and rewards). The SLO tool demonstrated validity, as reflected by a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.920.

Inclusive leadership scale

To assess inclusive leadership in this article, we utilized a scale originally developed by 58 , which encompasses five key dimensions: supporting team members, ensuring justice and equity, shared decision-making, encouraging diverse contributions, and helping group members fully contribute. Initially, the scale comprised 36 items, incorporating various elements from different authors. However, after undergoing validity testing, the scale was refined to 32 items. For this study, we selected one representative item from each dimension, resulting in a total of five items. The Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.915 demonstrated the validity of the IL tool.

Instrument validity and reliability

To ensure the validity and reliability of the instrument, we first referred to previous studies with similar variables to select and adapt subscales for our study. The original questionnaire, developed in English, was translated into the local language (Urdu) by two high school English teachers and then back-translated into English by two others. Three experts—two from the field of education and one English language expert —evaluated the questions’ suitability. To further enhance content validity, five faculty members from public universities completed the questionnaire. A pilot test with 25 participants was then conducted to assess the clarity and comprehensibility of the questions, and these participants were excluded from the official survey. Cronbach’s alpha values for the four constructs in the pilot test exceeded the minimum acceptable value of 0.60, with item-total correlations above 0.3.

Measurement model assessment

In this study, we utilized Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) through Smart-PLS 4.0 to approximate the theoretical framework outlined by 59 . Smart-PLS was selected for its ability to analyze both direct and indirect effects comprehensively. The first stage of our PLS analysis involved evaluating the measurement model, which is essential for ensuring the quality of the measurements. To assess the validity and reliability of the measurement model, we employed two key criteria. Initially, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess individual item reliability, internal consistency, as well as discriminant and convergent validity.

Individual item reliability was assessed using factor loadings (standardized) on their respective constructs. Loadings should typically be at least 0.7, indicating that the construct explains over 50% of the item’s variance. Items with lower loadings may still be acceptable if other items within the construct have sufficient loadings. Items below 0.4 are recommended for removal, while those below 0.7 may remain if their removal does not significantly improve internal consisten. In this study, most items had loadings above 0.7, with five items slightly below 0.7 but above 0.5, which was deemed acceptable (see Table  3 ; Fig.  2 ).

Measurement model assessment.

Model fit statistics

A model’s fit statistics indicate how well it matches the observed data. By using fit indices, the Saturated Model and Estimated Model are compared. For the Saturated Model, the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) value is 0.068, whereas for the Estimated Model, it is 0.069, indicating a good fit since values below 0.08 are generally acceptable (see Table  2 ). As measured by the d_ULS and d_G indices, the Saturated and Estimated models differ slightly, with d_ULS at 1.158 and 1.209 and d_G at 0.915 and 0.937, respectively. In the Estimated Model, Chi-square values are 1191.767 and 1214.369, showing a slight increase. As the Normed Fit Index (NFI) value is close to 0.766, there is a reasonably good fit between the two models.

Table  3 illustrates robust correlations between the items and their corresponding constructs, especially in areas such as innovative pedagogical approaches, student critical thinking, student learning outcomes, and inclusive leadership. High outer loadings, mostly exceeding 0.7, confirm that the constructs are well-defined by their items. The VIF values, which are generally low, indicate minimal multi-collinearity, supporting the model’s validity. The outer weights demonstrate the relative significance of each item within its construct, underscoring the model’s effectiveness in evaluating educational practices and their influence on student and leadership outcomes.

The results of the measurement model, as shown in Table  4 , indicate strong construct reliability and validity across four key areas: Inclusive Leadership (IL), Innovative Pedagogical Approaches (IPA), Student Critical Thinking (SCT), and Student Learning Outcomes (SLO). Cronbach’s alpha values range from 0.729 to 0.920, indicating good internal consistency within each construct. Composite reliability values (rho_c) are high, exceeding 0.81 for all constructs, which supports the reliability of the measurement model. Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) values, ranging from 0.526 to 0.746, confirm that a significant portion of variance is captured by the constructs, indicating strong convergent validity​​.

The discriminant validity assessment using the Fornell-Larcker Criterion, as presented in Table  5 , shows that the square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct is higher than its correlations with other constructs, indicating good discriminant validity. The values for Inclusive Leadership (IL), Innovative Pedagogical Approaches (IPA), Student Critical Thinking (SCT), and Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) are all above 0.8, demonstrating that each construct is distinct from the others, with the highest discriminant validity seen between IL and SLO (0.901). This supports the theoretical differentiation between the constructs being measured​​.

Structural equational model

Structural equational model.

The direct effects of IPA on SCT and SLO are illustrated in Fig.  3 and detailed in Table  6 . For Hypothesis, H1, the direct impact of IPA on SCT is significant, with a path coefficient (ß) of 0.536, a t-value of 6.539, and a p-value of 0.000, confirming strong support. Similarly, Hypothesis H2 reveals a significant direct effect of IPA on SLO, with a path coefficient (ß) of 0.551, a t-value of 12.725, and a p-value of 0.000, demonstrating the robustness of this effect. These findings align with prior studies, such as those by 60 , 61 which reported significant direct effects of IPA on similar constructs, further reinforcing the validity of these relationships.

The mediation analysis in the provided data shows that IL significantly mediates the relationship between IPA and both SCT and SLO. For the relationship between IPA and SCT, mediated by IL, the standardized coefficient (β) is 0.331 with a t-value of 3.833 and a p-value of 0.000, indicating strong statistical support (see Table  7 ; Fig.  3 ). Similarly, the mediation effect of IL between IPA and SLO is also significant, with a standardized coefficient (β) of 0.405, a t-value of 8.662, and a p-value of 0.000. The narrow confidence intervals for both relationships further underscore the robustness of these findings, suggesting that IL plays a critical role in mediating the effects of IPA on SCT and SLO. These results align with existing literature on mediation effects in similar models, confirming the importance of IL as a mediator in these relationships.

Influence of IPA on SCT (H1)

The significant positive relationship between IPA and SCT (ß = 0.536, p  = 0.000) suggests that innovative teaching methods directly foster student critical thinking. This result aligns with prior research 62 , 63 , emphasizing the need for educators to adopt innovative pedagogies to stimulate deeper cognitive engagement in students. This finding also reinforces constructivist learning theories, which advocate for active student participation and critical thinking in learning environments.

Effect of IPA on SLO (H2)

The strong positive impact of IPA on SLO (ß = 0.551, p  = 0.000) highlights the importance of creative and interactive teaching methods for improving learning outcomes. These results are consistent with previous studies by 64 , 65 , which reported similar effects of innovative pedagogical practices on student performance. The implications are significant for educational policymakers and practitioners, suggesting that investment in pedagogical innovation can directly enhance student achievement.

Mediation role of IL in IPA-SCT relationship (H3)

Inclusive Leadership (IL) significantly mediated the relationship between IPA and SCT, with a standardized coefficient of 0.331 ( p  = 0.000). This supports the hypothesis that IL strengthens the positive effects of innovative teaching approaches on critical thinking. The role of leadership in fostering an inclusive and supportive environment may explain why students engaged in innovative learning models experience higher levels of critical thinking. This finding aligns with leadership theories that emphasize the importance of inclusivity in creating equitable and effective learning environments 66 , 67 .

Mediation role of IL in IPA-SLO relationship (H4)

IL also played a crucial mediating role between IPA and SLO, with a standardized coefficient of 0.405 ( p  = 0.000). This finding suggests that IL not only facilitates the adoption of innovative pedagogies but also amplifies their impact on learning outcomes. The significance of leadership in shaping educational success has been widely documented, and this study further confirms IL’s pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of innovative teaching practices 68 .

Implications for theory and practice

The study’s results underscore the importance of integrating innovative pedagogies and inclusive leadership in educational settings. The positive effects of IPA on both critical thinking and learning outcomes, combined with the mediating role of IL, highlight the need for a holistic approach to education that combines creative teaching with supportive leadership. These findings have practical implications for teacher training programs, educational leadership development, and curriculum design. Additionally, the study contributes to the growing body of literature that links pedagogical innovation and leadership with improved student outcomes, offering evidence-based guidance for educational reform.

By building on existing theoretical frameworks and empirical studies, this research offers new insights into how educational practices can be improved through the combined use of innovative pedagogies and inclusive leadership, creating a more dynamic and effective learning environment for all students.

For educators

Adopting Innovative Pedagogical Approaches (IPA) : The results show that IPA significantly enhances both student critical thinking and learning outcomes. Educators should integrate creative and interactive teaching methods such as problem-based learning, inquiry-based teaching, and the use of digital tools to foster deeper cognitive engagement in students.

Fostering Inclusive Leadership (IL) : The mediating role of IL indicates that educators in leadership positions must create supportive, inclusive environments to maximize the impact of innovative teaching. This implies a need for professional development in leadership skills that promote inclusivity, equity, and collaboration in classrooms.

Focus on Student-Centered Learning : With IPA directly impacting student critical thinking, educators should shift toward learner-centered teaching strategies, giving students more opportunities for active participation, exploration, and collaboration.

For policy makers

Support for Professional Development : Given the importance of both IPA and IL in improving educational outcomes, policymakers should provide targeted funding and resources for professional development programs aimed at fostering innovative pedagogical skills and inclusive leadership practices in teachers and school administrators.

Curriculum Reform : Policymakers should encourage the integration of innovative teaching practices into national curricula, emphasizing the development of critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities alongside traditional academic knowledge.

Promote Leadership Training : Educational policies should focus on leadership development programs that train educators to create inclusive learning environments. Policy initiatives can emphasize mentorship programs and workshops that enhance the ability of leaders to implement IPA effectively.

For future research

Exploring Long-Term Effects of IPA : Future research should investigate the long-term impact of IPA on student outcomes, beyond immediate learning gains, to understand how these approaches influence lifelong learning and career success.

Examine the Role of IL in Different Educational Contexts : Further studies could explore the role of Inclusive Leadership in varying educational contexts, such as in rural or under-resourced schools, to determine how leadership influences innovation and student outcomes in diverse settings.

Cross-Cultural Comparisons : Future research could also explore how the effectiveness of IPA and IL varies across different cultural and educational systems, providing more global insights into the role of pedagogy and leadership in educational success.

Impact of Emerging Technologies : Investigating how emerging technologies like AI, virtual reality, and gamification can further enhance IPA and contribute to student learning outcomes, especially in STEM and creative disciplines, could offer new directions for educational innovation.

Limitations and directions for future research

One limitation of this study is the reliance on self-reported data , which may introduce biases such as social desirability bias or inaccuracies in participants’ responses. Self-reported measures are subjective and may not fully capture the objective realities of participants’ experiences.

Another limitation pertains to the limited generalizability of the findings. The data may be context-specific, particularly if the study focuses on specific educational institutions or regions. Consequently, the applicability of these findings to other contexts, especially those outside the current sample’s geographical or educational scope, may be constrained.

The use of cross-sectional data also limits the ability to draw causal inferences . Future studies could benefit from longitudinal designs to explore how relationships between constructs evolve over time.

Future research should consider employing objective measures alongside self-reported data to strengthen the validity of findings. Incorporating performance-based assessments or observational data may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the constructs under study.

Broader sample sizes across different regions or countries would enhance the generalizability of the results. Cross-cultural comparisons could also yield insights into how leadership practices and pedagogical approaches influence student outcomes in diverse educational settings.

Exploring additional mediating or moderating variables , such as teacher motivation or institutional support, could provide a deeper understanding of the pathways through which innovative pedagogical approaches impact student learning and critical thinking.

Longitudinal research examining how inclusive leadership practices evolve and sustain their impact on student outcomes over time could also offer valuable insights.

Conclusions

The study’s findings provide significant evidence of the positive effects of innovative pedagogical approaches (IPA) on student critical thinking (SCT) and student learning outcomes (SLO). The strong correlations between items and their constructs, as demonstrated by high outer loadings and minimal multicollinearity, support the model’s robustness. Additionally, inclusive leadership (IL) plays a critical mediating role in enhancing the impact of IPA on SCT and SLO, underscoring the importance of leadership in fostering educational improvements.

The broader implications for education suggest that schools and institutions should prioritize the integration of innovative teaching methods alongside fostering inclusive leadership to maximize student engagement and learning outcomes. These findings are supported by high reliability and validity measures, as well as statistically significant path coefficients, further confirming the model’s effectiveness.

Educational leaders are encouraged to adopt these approaches to create more inclusive and effective learning environments, which could lead to improved critical thinking and better overall academic performance for students. This study’s contributions highlight the intertwined relationship between leadership, pedagogy, and student success, offering valuable insights for enhancing educational practices.

Data availability

For inquiries concerning the data and materials presented in this paper, please feel free to contact the corresponding authors via email at [email protected].

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Bhuttah, T.M., Xusheng, Q., Abid, M.N. et al. Enhancing student critical thinking and learning outcomes through innovative pedagogical approaches in higher education: the mediating role of inclusive leadership. Sci Rep 14 , 24362 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-75379-0

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