how social media affects our lives essay brainly

How Social Media Impact Our Life (Explained)

By: Author Valerie Forgeard

Posted on Published: December 8, 2021  - Last updated: January 2, 2024

Categories Society

Social media is a big part of our lives. It has become how we sometimes communicate with others and even ourselves. We rely on social media to keep up with friends, family, and what’s happening worldwide. Social Media impacts our life in many ways, but it can also be detrimental if used incorrectly or too much.

This blog post will help you understand how social media impacts our lives for better or worse by providing tips that you can use to make your experience more positive for yourself and those around you!

Social Media Has an Impact on Real Life

I always think of social media as mapping our social lives in the mass media, where everyone can interact with us and judge our every move. Social media has become an essential part of our lives whether we like it or not. They can be used for good or for bad.

Social media has changed the face of communication and personal interaction. The impact they have on the world can be observed in many ways.

Social media has changed how we live and will continue to do so in the future. Social media is a great place to get new information, make friends, and voice your opinion.

Before, you could only talk to people face-to-face or over the phone. Making friends that way was difficult because you’d have to be around them for them to consider you a friend.

Social media has changed that because it allows you to connect with people worldwide in your everyday life. This has allowed us to expand our social network and connect with more people than ever before.

Social media positively affects our lives and can help us grow as individuals, but it can also be harmful if abused.

How Social Media Affects Mental Health

Social media can affect your mental health in several ways. First, they can lead to feelings of inadequacy and low self-worth.

Most people on social media post only their most flattering, heavily filtered photos and present themselves in the best light.

When you log on to social media, you’re confronted with a seemingly endless stream of beautiful pictures and perfect strangers who’re getting married, traveling the world, or have six-figure jobs – all things that make you feel like you’re falling short.

You may wish you were more attractive, had more impressive friends/family/colleagues, lived in a nicer house, or owned more material things.

This can lead to feelings of envy and resentment toward others.

These feelings are amplified by so many people presenting the best version of themselves online: We tend to post our happiest moments and most achievements online – our bad days, failures, and frustrations are much less reported.

Some studies show that we’re more likely to share our feelings on Facebook when we feel strong emotions like happiness or sadness than when we feel neutral.

So when you see a Facebook user talking about his/her great vacation (on a sandy beach, for example), it’s easy to think they have a perfect life even though you don’t see the in-flight arguments or the complaints about the heat.

Social Media Can Cause Depression

A new study in the journal JAMA Psychiatry suggests that teens who spend more than three hours daily on social media sites are more likely to develop depression and other mental health problems.

In another JAMA Psychiatry article, new statistics about social media platforms like TikTok and Instagram negatively impact adult mental health.

A 2018 study from the College of Pennsylvania found that reducing social media use to 30 minutes daily led to less depression, insomnia, loneliness, and fear of missing out.

If Social Media Is Bad For Our Mental Health, Why Do We Still Use It?

Social media is a blessing and a curse. They bring people together and can sometimes tear them apart. But the reason people use social media is to love it.

Social media is a great tool that allows us to connect with people who’re unreachable in the real world, make ourselves heard, and stay in touch with all of our friends.

They’re also beneficial for social media marketing purposes.

For many people, social media is their first contact with the outside world. It’s how they learn about events, communicate with people they don’t know, and have access to many resources that help them run their businesses while enjoying their free time.

I have a few friends who decided to retire from social media, and most of them came back because they couldn’t keep in touch with most people outside of social media.

10 Examples of the Positive Impact of Social Media

1. provides new opportunities for interaction and connections.

Social media connects us with friends, family, and social networks in ways that weren’t possible before. Everyone knows how to use it, even if they don’t always use it well. The power of social media lies in its ability to break down communication barriers and create connections between people on a global scale.

2. Helps people stay in touch and keep up to date

Social media helps you stay connected with loved ones who live far away.

Everyone can share personal experiences, post pictures, new music, videos, and discuss various topics. Social media is unlike any other ever created because it’s changed how people share their lives with their loved ones.

3. Allows people to share moments spontaneously

Social media lets you share your life with the world in real-time. People love to see what’s happening in your life, and social media lets you show them.

Being able to connect with others instantly means that if there’s a problem, everyone in the world has access to the same information at the same time and can take action quickly.

4. Allows people to share their views with the world and get feedback

A person can have a business idea, but if no one in their town knows about it, they won’t get any money. Social media allows people to share their ideas with friends, family, colleagues, and anyone accessing the Internet.

5. Creates a sense of community

Social networking sites allow social media users to create their communities based on their interests and preferences.

These communities offer people the opportunity to meet and discuss various topics.

By joining these groups or creating your own, you can meet like-minded people with similar interests and create a positive impact.

6. Create more jobs in the economy

The most popular social media sites, like Facebook and LinkedIn, have job boards where new jobs are posted daily.

Using social media, unemployed people can find job opportunities and apply directly through their social media accounts.

7. Informs users about local and online events

Social media platforms can create local and online events on the same or different platforms.

You can live stream an event in real-time and interact directly with your audience.

8. Helps charities raise funds

Charities and donors use social media to raise awareness and funds for various causes.

For example, on the social networking sites Facebook and Instagram, you can create pages, post updates, hold fundraisers, and collect donations.

Users no longer have to wait for telethons or other televised events to donate or help a cause. Charities can create their fundraiser, and donors can track progress in real-time.

9. Builds a brand presence for businesses

You can build relationships with your customers directly through social media. You can share news, products, events, and even the day-to-day happenings in the office or job site.

Social media also allows you to build your brand’s reputation through consistent posts across all networks.

Your online presence showcases your company’s personality, culture, and beliefs and shows potential customers who you’re and what sets you apart.

10. Enables brands to do business

Social media is used by businesses of all sizes, including many small and medium-sized businesses. Social media has become an important marketing tool for many businesses. Some social media platforms also allow companies to sell their products directly through the social media business page.

Related: What Is the Importance of Business Communication

10 Negative Effects of Social Media

1. impact on social interaction.

Many people look at their phones every few minutes. This leads to many interruptions during a normal day and often to “phubbing” – snubbing someone in favor of your phone. This causes stress in relationships.

Social networking has also allowed us to meet new people and interact with friends and family in a new way. However, the more people we “friend,” the more the quality of our interactions can diminish.

2. Emotional detachment

The more time you spend on social media, the more likely you will become disconnected from the real world.

If you spend more time on these sites than with your friends and family or with physical activities, it’s time to examine how you spend your time.

Are you becoming addicted? Are you looking at other people’s lives more than your own? If so, it could be affecting your professional and personal relationships.

3. Constant distraction

Social media is a double-edged sword. They can be a great way to connect with other people but also a great way to waste time.

This is especially true for entrepreneurs, who should know better than anyone that time is a minimal resource.

4. Sleep deprivation and the fear of missing out

Sleep deprivation can affect anyone who doesn’t get enough sleep, but late-night social media sessions can exacerbate it.

Many people check their social media feeds after they go to bed and before they leave for work or school in the morning. This lack of sleep can lead to depression, poor concentration, and mental health problems.

5. Danger from fake profiles, spammers, and scammers

Fake profiles on social media are used for various purposes, including identity theft, spamming, and scamming.

The worst thing about these fake profiles is that they contain all your data. If someone decides to use this information for identity theft, they’ll first look at your connections on Facebook to see who might be at risk.

6. No privacy

Your personal information is vulnerable.

The information you share on social media is available to anyone, including potential employers and government agencies.

Information you disclose on your Facebook, Twitter , and other social media accounts can be tracked by third parties, such as websites and companies that create databases to target potential customers.

7. Increased feelings of inadequacy

Regular social media use can lead to increased feelings of inadequacy, isolation, and depression in young adults, research suggests.

These feelings of inadequacy and the need for social comparison can lead young people to change aspects of their personality (diets, hair color, clothing) or try risky behaviors they see portrayed on social media.

8. Social isolation

With all the time people spend on social media, they can lose touch with what’s important – genuine human relationships, like close family ties or friendships with neighbors or colleagues.

Social isolation can make you lonely, depressed, or anxious.

Some people are surprised that they spend more time on social media than with their families! That’s one reason a young person who uses social media heavily is more likely to feel depressed or have other negative emotions than peers who don’t use social media as much.

9. Stress & instant messaging

Studies have shown that the constant presence of social media and the need to respond immediately to text messages, emails, and phone calls can cause high stress and anxiety.

10. Fake news

Although social media platforms are doing their best to stop it, Fake News is still a problem, but they aren’t solely to blame.

We’ve already seen that some people use this tragedy to promote their political agenda.

For example, before social media existed, Populists used the power of modern technology, including the movie camera and radio, to spread their message of hate and genocide.

The speed with which information can be disseminated today makes it even more important to be vigilant in sourcing news.

We must demand sources we can trust because our freedom depends on them.

Imagine Life Without Social Media

I’ve been thinking about that for a while.

For nearly two decades, I’ve lived and traveled abroad and experienced many places where I was removed from social media and digital technologies.

I’ve also found myself in situations where my access to the Internet was severely limited or cut off altogether, and that was the best time in my life.

However, social media and digital communications have become an integral part of our daily life for many people, even those who don’t live in a big city or have a job that requires them to be connected to the Internet all day. And so it’s tough to disconnect from all of that, even if you want to because your contacts are just there.

They’re accessible, and they’re easy to use. You can always connect with them, find out what they’re up to, see what they think about things, and constantly interact with friends and family far away.

Sometimes we wish it was a little more difficult or less direct. We’d love to sit down with a book or some other form of distraction without feeling guilty that someone might get back to us because we haven’t responded to him or her in 15 minutes.

The Question is: How Do You Find a Balance?

A social media detox might be just what you need to get your life back on track.

It can be very tempting to check Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat every few minutes. But it might be time for a break if you’re having difficulty focusing on work or paying attention to the people around you.

How to Take a Break From Social Media

Find out which social media platform(s) you use most.

Once you’ve figured out which apps you use the most, look at how much time you spend on them daily.

If it’s more than an hour, maybe it’s time to take a break from social media for the next week or so.

Block out certain times during the day

If you want to spend an hour or two on social media daily, that’s fine. But if it starts to take over your everyday life – constantly looking at your phone when you’re supposed to be doing something else and feeling restless when you’re not – it’s time to take a break.

Delete your apps from your phone

If you can’t live without checking Facebook every five minutes, install the app on your desktop computer (you can even save it as your desktop wallpaper for quick access) and ensure it’s easily accessible. If you can’t delete your apps, at least turn off notifications on your phone.

Focus on offline activities

Many fulfilling offline activities include sports, art, writing, cooking, reading, etc. Get together with your friends or family face-to-face. You’ll be surprised how much you’ll appreciate the time you spend with those you haven’t seen.

Leave your phone outside your bedroom when you go to sleep

Many people get so attached to their devices that they don’t want to turn them off while they sleep.

This makes it hard to get a good night’s sleep because all you can think about is what’s happening on your social media feeds.

The result is insomnia and anxiety: you wake up in the middle of the night worrying about world events, news, your bank balance, or someone you like will be looking at their phone in an hour.

What to Keep in Mind When You Want to Opt Out of Your Social Media Accounts

The decision to remove yourself from social media is a serious one.

As with most things in life, there are both pros and cons.

It’s important to consider your feelings before making the decision to remove yourself from any of these platforms.

Benefits of Withdrawing From Social Media

• Reduce your stress and anxiety levels in your daily life. Social media can be addictive and stressful. You may compare your life to other social media users as you read others’ posts. This can lead to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression. If you think social media is stressing you out, it may be an excellent decision to withdraw from it.
• Spend more time with your family and friends. Social media can keep you from real social interaction with the people most matter to you. By withdrawing from social media, you can put away your phone or computer and spend more time with the people who matter to you.
• Give your eyes a break. If you’re reading Facebook or Instagram all day, your eyes will quickly become strained and tired. Step away from social media for a while and give your eyes a much-needed break by looking at other things (like the face of

Benefits of Staying on Social Media

• Keep in Touch with Friends and Family. It’s also a great way to meet new people – especially if you’re traveling. Some of your closest relationships result from a chance encounter online. And even if they’re far away – or maybe even dead – you can always reach them on social media.
• Stay Connected Social media can make it easier to find out things about other people’s lives, including their interests and activities. If you’re bored with people who aren’t interesting enough to keep you entertained, social media can help by connecting you with cool groups and events in your area or around the world.
• Stay Informed Social media is a great way to learn new things from people who share your interests and passions.

Social Media for Business

Social media isn’t just for your personal use anymore. Small businesses are using various forms of social media to grow their business.

It’s a great way to reach new customers and interact with their existing customers. They can get feedback from their customers and provide great customer service.

Social media allows small businesses to build relationships with potential customers before meeting them in person.

Social Media Helps You Network

Social media helps you network with people with similar interests and allows you to meet new people with the same or similar ideas and beliefs.

Whether you’re looking for friends or want to network, there are many different ways that social media can improve your life in different ways.

Which Social Media Platform is Right for You?

If you use social media for your business or professional networking, the question isn’t whether you should leave social media but which social platform is right for you.

Most Popular Platforms Used by Businesses and Professionals

• LinkedIn – This platform offers business-to-business (B2B) contacts a great opportunity. It’s primarily geared toward professional use and allows you to connect with potential clients. LinkedIn gives you more control over your audience than on other social networks. You can narrow them by job title, company size, industry, etc.
• Facebook – this social platform is best for marketers with a small budget. It allows you to focus on your target audience and get the most out of your advertising budget. Facebook is still growing and therefore offers many untapped opportunities for business.
• Twitter – is primarily used as a real-time news feed, but it also provides a great way for businesses to connect with customers and prospects. Using Twitter ads, you can connect with new prospects and customers cost-effectively. Twitter is especially effective for those who’ve little time for social media. The messages are usually short.
• Instagram – great for eCommerce is a fun way to market your business and get your name out there. The Instagram app and ads are constantly improving.

A Social Media Site Is Like Any Other Tool; It Only Affects Us if We Let It

Social media is here to stay, so it is essential to know how to use it properly.

The impact of social media on our lives, how we do business, and more is significant.

They’ve become a way of life for everyone and are a good network for people to stay in touch and share information.

Related Post

Did you know that social media also significantly affects our reading habits and literacy?

With the digital age in full swing, the way we consume information and literature is rapidly changing, especially among younger generations.

To delve deeper into this topic, check out our insightful article: Why It Matters That Teens Are Reading Less . This piece sheds light on the critical impact of social media on traditional reading practices, highlighting the decline in leisure reading among teenagers. It explores how social media platforms’ instant gratification and fast-paced nature can reshape attention spans and reading preferences.

Understanding this shift is crucial, as it has profound implications for cognitive development, academic performance, and emotional well-being.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the impact of social media on our lives.

Social media profoundly impacts our lives, including how we communicate, consume information, political opinions, buying behaviors, and overall sense of self and community. The impact can be positive and negative, depending on its use.

How does social media affect our mental health?

Studies have shown that excessive use of social media can contribute to feelings of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and lower self-esteem. However, social media can also provide support networks and connections to improve mental health. The impact largely depends on how and why individuals use these platforms.

How does social media impact communication?

Social media has revolutionized communication, making it faster and more immediate. It allows people to connect globally, share ideas, and collaborate like never before. However, this can also spread misinformation and misunderstandings due to digital communication’s lack of non-verbal cues.

What are the positive effects of social media?

Positive effects of social media include the ability to connect with people worldwide, access to a wealth of information and different perspectives, opportunities for learning, and a platform for self-expression and creativity.

What are the negative effects of social media?

Negative effects of social media can include cyberbullying, privacy concerns, misinformation, and the potential for addiction. It can also lead to decreased productivity and adversely affect mental health.

Can social media impact our decision-making process?

Yes, social media can significantly impact our decision-making processes. From influencing our purchasing decisions through ads and influencer marketing to shaping our political views, our social media content can shape our thoughts, perceptions, and actions.

How does social media influence our perception of reality?

Social media can influence our perception of reality by presenting curated, often idealized versions of people’s lives, leading to unrealistic expectations and comparisons. It can also influence our perception of events or issues based on the opinions and perspectives we’re exposed to.

Is it possible to reduce the negative impacts of social media?

Yes, it is possible to reduce the negative impacts of social media. This can be done by setting boundaries, curating feeds to include diverse and positive content, taking regular digital detoxes, and fostering healthy offline relationships and hobbies.

How does social media impact teenagers differently than adults?

Teenagers, who are in a critical stage of social and emotional development, might be more susceptible to the negative impacts of social media, such as cyberbullying, peer pressure, and the impact on self-esteem from comparison. However, they can also benefit from these platforms’ educational content and social connections.

How has social media changed society?

Social media has significantly changed society in various ways. It has transformed how we communicate, how we access information, and even how we perceive ourselves and the world around us. It has led to significant societal changes, including shifts in political discourse, consumer behavior, and social activism.

Related Articles

Associations Between Time Spent Using Social Media and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems Among US Youth )

Association Between Social Media Use and Self-reported Symptoms of Depression in US Adults

Help Guide: Social Media and Mental Health

Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Social Media — Social Media Impact On Society

Social Media Impact on Society

• Categories: Social Media

About this sample

Words: 614 |

Published: Mar 13, 2024

Words: 614 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Cite this Essay

To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Verified writer

• Expert in: Sociology

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 696 words

3 pages / 1526 words

3 pages / 1226 words

6 pages / 2793 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Social Media

In the 21st century, the rise of social media platforms has ushered in a digital revolution that has profoundly transformed the way we communicate, connect, and live our lives. From Facebook to Twitter, Instagram to TikTok, [...]

Primack, B. A. (n.d.). Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults in the U.S. Emotion, 17(6), 1026–1032. DOI: 10.1037/emo0000525Hobson, K. (n.d.). The Social Media Paradox: Are We Really More Connected? [...]

Bulmer, J. G., McLeod, J. M., & Rice, R. E. (2009). Television and Political Life: Studies in Six European Countries. Springer Science & Business Media.Fulcher, J., & Scott, J. (2011). Sociology. Oxford University Press.Kitts, [...]

Anderson, C. A., & Jiang, S. (2018). The value of social media data. Marketing Science, 37(3), 387-402.Boczkowski, P. J., & Mitchelstein, E. (2013). The news gap: When the information preferences of the media and the public [...]

Social media is a superb factor or a awful issue? That is the maximum often asked query these days. Nicely, there are constantly aspects of the entirety. It depends to your perspective on how you perceive it. The same goes for [...]

The company Always is a brand of feminine hygiene products and has been in business since 1984. The advertisement analyzed within this essay seeks to catch the viewer’s eye and cause the female viewer to associate that product [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

How Social Media Affects our Lives

This essay will analyze the multifaceted impact of social media on our lives. It will discuss both the positive aspects, such as connectivity and access to information, and the negative effects, including privacy concerns, misinformation, and its influence on mental health. The piece will explore how social media shapes communication, behavior, and societal trends, and the ongoing debate over its role in modern society. On PapersOwl, there’s also a selection of free essay templates associated with Social Media.

How it works

Social media such as, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snap Chat and so on have become a normal part of our lives. Many people use these platforms to keep in touch with friends and family. Using social media is fast and efficient for all, something can be posted and when you have a minute you can browse the social media platform and see what has been going on through the day. However, social media can be a dangerous place for young children and teens.

Children and young teens should be closely monitored while using social media.

Social media can be a distraction for adults, let alone for children and teens who may need to work on time management and prioritization skills. Age 13 with appropriate adult supervision would be a good age to start using social media. Starting to use social media at 13 gives a sense of individuality and can build confidence. According to the Mayo Clinic, “These networks can provide teens with valuable support, especially helping those who experience exclusion or have disabilities or chronic illnesses. Teens also use social media for entertainment and self-expression. And the platforms can expose teens to current events, allow them to interact across geographic barriers and teach them about a variety of subjects, including healthy behaviors”.

Social media helps connect people who otherwise cannot be together. It is a way to keep us engaged with each other while still maintaining other aspects of our busy lives. PEW research center did a survey about teens and social media in 2018 and found that 45% of teens are “almost constantly” online and 44% reported online “several times a day” and only 11% stated “less often”. Majority of these online reports have been social media platforms, where people interact virtually.

Some may say that social media for teens is not acceptable due to their maturity levels or possibly even their emotional maturity. Everyone is different and not allowing teens to express themselves will hinder development rather then build them up. With proper adult supervision and education on internet safety, there is no reason a teen cannot have a positive social media experience. “Social media that’s humorous or distracting or provides a meaningful connection to peers and a wide social network might even help teens avoid depression” (Mayo Clinic, 2019).

Finally, social media platforms have become a new normal in our lives. Especially now, with COVID-19, social media has been a wonderful asset. It has kept families, friends and even teachers together. In uncertain and scary times where we are not able to be in the company of others, social media has kept us together to continue a certain amount of normalcy in our lives.

Cite this page

How Social Media Affects Our Lives. (2022, Feb 09). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/

"How Social Media Affects Our Lives." PapersOwl.com , 9 Feb 2022, https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/

PapersOwl.com. (2022). How Social Media Affects Our Lives . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/ [Accessed: 27 Sep. 2024]

"How Social Media Affects Our Lives." PapersOwl.com, Feb 09, 2022. Accessed September 27, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/

"How Social Media Affects Our Lives," PapersOwl.com , 09-Feb-2022. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/. [Accessed: 27-Sep-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2022). How Social Media Affects Our Lives . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/how-social-media-affects-our-lives/ [Accessed: 27-Sep-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Effects of Social Media Use on Psychological Well-Being: A Mediated Model

Dragana ostic.

1 School of Finance and Economics, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China

Sikandar Ali Qalati

Belem barbosa.

2 Research Unit of Governance, Competitiveness, and Public Policies (GOVCOPP), Center for Economics and Finance (cef.up), School of Economics and Management, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Syed Mir Muhammad Shah

3 Department of Business Administration, Sukkur Institute of Business Administration (IBA) University, Sukkur, Pakistan

Esthela Galvan Vela

4 CETYS Universidad, Tijuana, Mexico

Ahmed Muhammad Herzallah

5 Department of Business Administration, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem, Israel

6 Business School, Shandong University, Weihai, China

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The growth in social media use has given rise to concerns about the impacts it may have on users' psychological well-being. This paper's main objective is to shed light on the effect of social media use on psychological well-being. Building on contributions from various fields in the literature, it provides a more comprehensive study of the phenomenon by considering a set of mediators, including social capital types (i.e., bonding social capital and bridging social capital), social isolation, and smartphone addiction. The paper includes a quantitative study of 940 social media users from Mexico, using structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the proposed hypotheses. The findings point to an overall positive indirect impact of social media usage on psychological well-being, mainly due to the positive effect of bonding and bridging social capital. The empirical model's explanatory power is 45.1%. This paper provides empirical evidence and robust statistical analysis that demonstrates both positive and negative effects coexist, helping to reconcile the inconsistencies found so far in the literature.

Introduction

The use of social media has grown substantially in recent years (Leong et al., 2019 ; Kemp, 2020 ). Social media refers to “the websites and online tools that facilitate interactions between users by providing them opportunities to share information, opinions, and interest” (Swar and Hameed, 2017 , p. 141). Individuals use social media for many reasons, including entertainment, communication, and searching for information. Notably, adolescents and young adults are spending an increasing amount of time on online networking sites, e-games, texting, and other social media (Twenge and Campbell, 2019 ). In fact, some authors (e.g., Dhir et al., 2018 ; Tateno et al., 2019 ) have suggested that social media has altered the forms of group interaction and its users' individual and collective behavior around the world.

Consequently, there are increased concerns regarding the possible negative impacts associated with social media usage addiction (Swar and Hameed, 2017 ; Kircaburun et al., 2020 ), particularly on psychological well-being (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Jiao et al., 2017 ; Choi and Noh, 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ). Smartphones sometimes distract their users from relationships and social interaction (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Li et al., 2020a ), and several authors have stressed that the excessive use of social media may lead to smartphone addiction (Swar and Hameed, 2017 ; Leong et al., 2019 ), primarily because of the fear of missing out (Reer et al., 2019 ; Roberts and David, 2020 ). Social media usage has been associated with anxiety, loneliness, and depression (Dhir et al., 2018 ; Reer et al., 2019 ), social isolation (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016 ; Whaite et al., 2018 ), and “phubbing,” which refers to the extent to which an individual uses, or is distracted by, their smartphone during face-to-face communication with others (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Jiao et al., 2017 ; Choi and Noh, 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ).

However, social media use also contributes to building a sense of connectedness with relevant others (Twenge and Campbell, 2019 ), which may reduce social isolation. Indeed, social media provides several ways to interact both with close ties, such as family, friends, and relatives, and weak ties, including coworkers, acquaintances, and strangers (Chen and Li, 2017 ), and plays a key role among people of all ages as they exploit their sense of belonging in different communities (Roberts and David, 2020 ). Consequently, despite the fears regarding the possible negative impacts of social media usage on well-being, there is also an increasing number of studies highlighting social media as a new communication channel (Twenge and Campbell, 2019 ; Barbosa et al., 2020 ), stressing that it can play a crucial role in developing one's presence, identity, and reputation, thus facilitating social interaction, forming and maintaining relationships, and sharing ideas (Carlson et al., 2016 ), which consequently may be significantly correlated to social support (Chen and Li, 2017 ; Holliman et al., 2021 ). Interestingly, recent studies (e.g., David et al., 2018 ; Bano et al., 2019 ; Barbosa et al., 2020 ) have suggested that the impact of smartphone usage on psychological well-being depends on the time spent on each type of application and the activities that users engage in.

Hence, the literature provides contradictory cues regarding the impacts of social media on users' well-being, highlighting both the possible negative impacts and the social enhancement it can potentially provide. In line with views on the need to further investigate social media usage (Karikari et al., 2017 ), particularly regarding its societal implications (Jiao et al., 2017 ), this paper argues that there is an urgent need to further understand the impact of the time spent on social media on users' psychological well-being, namely by considering other variables that mediate and further explain this effect.

One of the relevant perspectives worth considering is that provided by social capital theory, which is adopted in this paper. Social capital theory has previously been used to study how social media usage affects psychological well-being (e.g., Bano et al., 2019 ). However, extant literature has so far presented only partial models of associations that, although statistically acceptable and contributing to the understanding of the scope of social networks, do not provide as comprehensive a vision of the phenomenon as that proposed within this paper. Furthermore, the contradictory views, suggesting both negative (e.g., Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016 ; Jiao et al., 2017 ; Whaite et al., 2018 ; Choi and Noh, 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ) and positive impacts (Carlson et al., 2016 ; Chen and Li, 2017 ; Twenge and Campbell, 2019 ) of social media on psychological well-being, have not been adequately explored.

Given this research gap, this paper's main objective is to shed light on the effect of social media use on psychological well-being. As explained in detail in the next section, this paper explores the mediating effect of bonding and bridging social capital. To provide a broad view of the phenomenon, it also considers several variables highlighted in the literature as affecting the relationship between social media usage and psychological well-being, namely smartphone addiction, social isolation, and phubbing. The paper utilizes a quantitative study conducted in Mexico, comprising 940 social media users, and uses structural equation modeling (SEM) to test a set of research hypotheses.

This article provides several contributions. First, it adds to existing literature regarding the effect of social media use on psychological well-being and explores the contradictory indications provided by different approaches. Second, it proposes a conceptual model that integrates complementary perspectives on the direct and indirect effects of social media use. Third, it offers empirical evidence and robust statistical analysis that demonstrates that both positive and negative effects coexist, helping resolve the inconsistencies found so far in the literature. Finally, this paper provides insights on how to help reduce the potential negative effects of social media use, as it demonstrates that, through bridging and bonding social capital, social media usage positively impacts psychological well-being. Overall, the article offers valuable insights for academics, practitioners, and society in general.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section Literature Review presents a literature review focusing on the factors that explain the impact of social media usage on psychological well-being. Based on the literature review, a set of hypotheses are defined, resulting in the proposed conceptual model, which includes both the direct and indirect effects of social media usage on psychological well-being. Section Research Methodology explains the methodological procedures of the research, followed by the presentation and discussion of the study's results in section Results. Section Discussion is dedicated to the conclusions and includes implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

Literature Review

Putnam ( 1995 , p. 664–665) defined social capital as “features of social life – networks, norms, and trust – that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives.” Li and Chen ( 2014 , p. 117) further explained that social capital encompasses “resources embedded in one's social network, which can be assessed and used for instrumental or expressive returns such as mutual support, reciprocity, and cooperation.”

Putnam ( 1995 , 2000 ) conceptualized social capital as comprising two dimensions, bridging and bonding, considering the different norms and networks in which they occur. Bridging social capital refers to the inclusive nature of social interaction and occurs when individuals from different origins establish connections through social networks. Hence, bridging social capital is typically provided by heterogeneous weak ties (Li and Chen, 2014 ). This dimension widens individual social horizons and perspectives and provides extended access to resources and information. Bonding social capital refers to the social and emotional support each individual receives from his or her social networks, particularly from close ties (e.g., family and friends).

Overall, social capital is expected to be positively associated with psychological well-being (Bano et al., 2019 ). Indeed, Williams ( 2006 ) stressed that interaction generates affective connections, resulting in positive impacts, such as emotional support. The following sub-sections use the lens of social capital theory to explore further the relationship between the use of social media and psychological well-being.

Social Media Use, Social Capital, and Psychological Well-Being

The effects of social media usage on social capital have gained increasing scholarly attention, and recent studies have highlighted a positive relationship between social media use and social capital (Brown and Michinov, 2019 ; Tefertiller et al., 2020 ). Li and Chen ( 2014 ) hypothesized that the intensity of Facebook use by Chinese international students in the United States was positively related to social capital forms. A longitudinal survey based on the quota sampling approach illustrated the positive effects of social media use on the two social capital dimensions (Chen and Li, 2017 ). Abbas and Mesch ( 2018 ) argued that, as Facebook usage increases, it will also increase users' social capital. Karikari et al. ( 2017 ) also found positive effects of social media use on social capital. Similarly, Pang ( 2018 ) studied Chinese students residing in Germany and found positive effects of social networking sites' use on social capital, which, in turn, was positively associated with psychological well-being. Bano et al. ( 2019 ) analyzed the 266 students' data and found positive effects of WhatsApp use on social capital forms and the positive effect of social capital on psychological well-being, emphasizing the role of social integration in mediating this positive effect.

Kim and Kim ( 2017 ) stressed the importance of having a heterogeneous network of contacts, which ultimately enhances the potential social capital. Overall, the manifest and social relations between people from close social circles (bonding social capital) and from distant social circles (bridging social capital) are strengthened when they promote communication, social support, and the sharing of interests, knowledge, and skills, which are shared with other members. This is linked to positive effects on interactions, such as acceptance, trust, and reciprocity, which are related to the individuals' health and psychological well-being (Bekalu et al., 2019 ), including when social media helps to maintain social capital between social circles that exist outside of virtual communities (Ellison et al., 2007 ).

Grounded on the above literature, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

• H1a: Social media use is positively associated with bonding social capital.
• H1b: Bonding social capital is positively associated with psychological well-being.
• H2a: Social media use is positively associated with bridging social capital.
• H2b: Bridging social capital is positively associated with psychological well-being.

Social Media Use, Social Isolation, and Psychological Well-Being

Social isolation is defined as “a deficit of personal relationships or being excluded from social networks” (Choi and Noh, 2019 , p. 4). The state that occurs when an individual lacks true engagement with others, a sense of social belonging, and a satisfying relationship is related to increased mortality and morbidity (Primack et al., 2017 ). Those who experience social isolation are deprived of social relationships and lack contact with others or involvement in social activities (Schinka et al., 2012 ). Social media usage has been associated with anxiety, loneliness, and depression (Dhir et al., 2018 ; Reer et al., 2019 ), and social isolation (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016 ; Whaite et al., 2018 ). However, some recent studies have argued that social media use decreases social isolation (Primack et al., 2017 ; Meshi et al., 2020 ). Indeed, the increased use of social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and Twitter, among others, may provide opportunities for decreasing social isolation. For instance, the improved interpersonal connectivity achieved via videos and images on social media helps users evidence intimacy, attenuating social isolation (Whaite et al., 2018 ).

Chappell and Badger ( 1989 ) stated that social isolation leads to decreased psychological well-being, while Choi and Noh ( 2019 ) concluded that greater social isolation is linked to increased suicide risk. Schinka et al. ( 2012 ) further argued that, when individuals experience social isolation from siblings, friends, family, or society, their psychological well-being tends to decrease. Thus, based on the literature cited above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

• H3a: Social media use is significantly associated with social isolation.
• H3b: Social isolation is negatively associated with psychological well-being.

Social Media Use, Smartphone Addiction, Phubbing, and Psychological Well-Being

Smartphone addiction refers to “an individuals' excessive use of a smartphone and its negative effects on his/her life as a result of his/her inability to control his behavior” (Gökçearslan et al., 2018 , p. 48). Regardless of its form, smartphone addiction results in social, medical, and psychological harm to people by limiting their ability to make their own choices (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ). The rapid advancement of information and communication technologies has led to the concept of social media, e-games, and also to smartphone addiction (Chatterjee, 2020 ). The excessive use of smartphones for social media use, entertainment (watching videos, listening to music), and playing e-games is more common amongst people addicted to smartphones (Jeong et al., 2016 ). In fact, previous studies have evidenced the relationship between social use and smartphone addiction (Salehan and Negahban, 2013 ; Jeong et al., 2016 ; Swar and Hameed, 2017 ). In line with this, the following hypotheses are proposed:

• H4a: Social media use is positively associated with smartphone addiction.
• H4b: Smartphone addiction is negatively associated with psychological well-being.

While smartphones are bringing individuals closer, they are also, to some extent, pulling people apart (Tonacci et al., 2019 ). For instance, they can lead to individuals ignoring others with whom they have close ties or physical interactions; this situation normally occurs due to extreme smartphone use (i.e., at the dinner table, in meetings, at get-togethers and parties, and in other daily activities). This act of ignoring others is called phubbing and is considered a common phenomenon in communication activities (Guazzini et al., 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ). Phubbing is also referred to as an act of snubbing others (Chatterjee, 2020 ). This term was initially used in May 2012 by an Australian advertising agency to describe the “growing phenomenon of individuals ignoring their families and friends who were called phubbee (a person who is a recipients of phubbing behavior) victim of phubber (a person who start phubbing her or his companion)” (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2018 ). Smartphone addiction has been found to be a determinant of phubbing (Kim et al., 2018 ). Other recent studies have also evidenced the association between smartphones and phubbing (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Guazzini et al., 2019 ; Tonacci et al., 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ). Vallespín et al. ( 2017 ) argued that phubbing behavior has a negative influence on psychological well-being and satisfaction. Furthermore, smartphone addiction is considered responsible for the development of new technologies. It may also negatively influence individual's psychological proximity (Chatterjee, 2020 ). Therefore, based on the above discussion and calls for the association between phubbing and psychological well-being to be further explored, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

• H5: Smartphone addiction is positively associated with phubbing.
• H6: Phubbing is negatively associated with psychological well-being.

Indirect Relationship Between Social Media Use and Psychological Well-Being

Beyond the direct hypotheses proposed above, this study investigates the indirect effects of social media use on psychological well-being mediated by social capital forms, social isolation, and phubbing. As described above, most prior studies have focused on the direct influence of social media use on social capital forms, social isolation, smartphone addiction, and phubbing, as well as the direct impact of social capital forms, social isolation, smartphone addiction, and phubbing on psychological well-being. Very few studies, however, have focused on and evidenced the mediating role of social capital forms, social isolation, smartphone addiction, and phubbing derived from social media use in improving psychological well-being (Chen and Li, 2017 ; Pang, 2018 ; Bano et al., 2019 ; Choi and Noh, 2019 ). Moreover, little is known about smartphone addiction's mediating role between social media use and psychological well-being. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap in the existing literature by investigating the mediation of social capital forms, social isolation, and smartphone addiction. Further, examining the mediating influence will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of social media use on psychological well-being via the mediating associations of smartphone addiction and psychological factors. Therefore, based on the above, we propose the following hypotheses (the conceptual model is presented in Figure 1 ):

Conceptual model.

• H7: (a) Bonding social capital; (b) bridging social capital; (c) social isolation; and (d) smartphone addiction mediate the relationship between social media use and psychological well-being.

Research Methodology

Sample procedure and online survey.

This study randomly selected students from universities in Mexico. We chose University students for the following reasons. First, students are considered the most appropriate sample for e-commerce studies, particularly in the social media context (Oghazi et al., 2018 ; Shi et al., 2018 ). Second, University students are considered to be frequent users and addicted to smartphones (Mou et al., 2017 ; Stouthuysen et al., 2018 ). Third, this study ensured that respondents were experienced, well-educated, and possessed sufficient knowledge of the drawbacks of social media and the extreme use of smartphones. A total sample size of 940 University students was ultimately achieved from the 1,500 students contacted, using a convenience random sampling approach, due both to the COVID-19 pandemic and budget and time constraints. Additionally, in order to test the model, a quantitative empirical study was conducted, using an online survey method to collect data. This study used a web-based survey distributed via social media platforms for two reasons: the COVID-19 pandemic; and to reach a large number of respondents (Qalati et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, online surveys are considered a powerful and authenticated tool for new research (Fan et al., 2021 ), while also representing a fast, simple, and less costly approach to collecting data (Dutot and Bergeron, 2016 ).

Data Collection Procedures and Respondent's Information

Data were collected by disseminating a link to the survey by e-mail and social network sites. Before presenting the closed-ended questionnaire, respondents were assured that their participation would remain voluntary, confidential, and anonymous. Data collection occurred from July 2020 to December 2020 (during the pandemic). It should be noted that, because data were collected during the pandemic, this may have had an influence on the results of the study. The reason for choosing a six-month lag time was to mitigate common method bias (CMB) (Li et al., 2020b ). In the present study, 1,500 students were contacted via University e-mail and social applications (Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram). We sent a reminder every month for 6 months (a total of six reminders), resulting in 940 valid responses. Thus, 940 (62.6% response rate) responses were used for hypotheses testing.

Table 1 reveals that, of the 940 participants, three-quarters were female (76.4%, n = 719) and nearly one-quarter (23.6%, n = 221) were male. Nearly half of the participants (48.8%, n = 459) were aged between 26 and 35 years, followed by 36 to 35 years (21.9%, n = 206), <26 (20.3%, n = 191), and over 45 (8.9%, n = 84). Approximately two-thirds (65%, n = 611) had a bachelor's degree or above, while one-third had up to 12 years of education. Regarding the daily frequency of using the Internet, nearly half (48.6%, n = 457) of the respondents reported between 5 and 8 h a day, and over one-quarter (27.2%) 9–12 h a day. Regarding the social media platforms used, over 38.5 and 39.6% reported Facebook and WhatsApp, respectively. Of the 940 respondents, only 22.1% reported Instagram (12.8%) and Twitter (9.2%). It should be noted, however, that the sample is predominantly female and well-educated.

Respondents' characteristics.

Measurement Items

The study used five-point Likert scales (1 = “strongly disagree;” 5 = “strongly agree”) to record responses.

Social Media Use

Social media use was assessed using four items adapted from Karikari et al. ( 2017 ). Sample items include “Social media is part of my everyday activity,” “Social media has become part of my daily life,” “I would be sorry if social media shut down,” and “I feel out of touch, when I have not logged onto social media for a while.” The adapted items had robust reliability and validity (CA = 783, CR = 0.857, AVE = 0.600).

Social Capital

Social capital was measured using a total of eight items, representing bonding social capital (four items) and bridging social capital (four items) adapted from Chan ( 2015 ). Sample construct items include: bonging social capital (“I am willing to spend time to support general community activities,” “I interact with people who are quite different from me”) and bridging social capital (“My social media community is a good place to be,” “Interacting with people on social media makes me want to try new things”). The adapted items had robust reliability and validity [bonding social capital (CA = 0.785, CR = 0.861, AVE = 0.608) and bridging social capital (CA = 0.834, CR = 0.883, AVE = 0.601)].

Social Isolation

Social isolation was assessed using three items from Choi and Noh ( 2019 ). Sample items include “I do not have anyone to play with,” “I feel alone from people,” and “I have no one I can trust.” This adapted scale had substantial reliability and validity (CA = 0.890, CR = 0.928, AVE = 0.811).

Smartphone Addiction

Smartphone addiction was assessed using five items taken from Salehan and Negahban ( 2013 ). Sample items include “I am always preoccupied with my mobile,” “Using my mobile phone keeps me relaxed,” and “I am not able to control myself from frequent use of mobile phones.” Again, these adapted items showed substantial reliability and validity (CA = 903, CR = 0.928, AVE = 0.809).

Phubbing was assessed using four items from Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas ( 2018 ). Sample items include: “I have conflicts with others because I am using my phone” and “I would rather pay attention to my phone than talk to others.” This construct also demonstrated significant reliability and validity (CA = 770, CR = 0.894, AVE = 0.809).

Psychological Well-Being

Psychological well-being was assessed using five items from Jiao et al. ( 2017 ). Sample items include “I lead a purposeful and meaningful life with the help of others,” “My social relationships are supportive and rewarding in social media,” and “I am engaged and interested in my daily on social media.” This study evidenced that this adapted scale had substantial reliability and validity (CA = 0.886, CR = 0.917, AVE = 0.688).

Data Analysis

Based on the complexity of the association between the proposed construct and the widespread use and acceptance of SmartPLS 3.0 in several fields (Hair et al., 2019 ), we utilized SEM, using SmartPLS 3.0, to examine the relationships between constructs. Structural equation modeling is a multivariate statistical analysis technique that is used to investigate relationships. Further, it is a combination of factor and multivariate regression analysis, and is employed to explore the relationship between observed and latent constructs.

SmartPLS 3.0 “is a more comprehensive software program with an intuitive graphical user interface to run partial least square SEM analysis, certainly has had a massive impact” (Sarstedt and Cheah, 2019 ). According to Ringle et al. ( 2015 ), this commercial software offers a wide range of algorithmic and modeling options, improved usability, and user-friendly and professional support. Furthermore, Sarstedt and Cheah ( 2019 ) suggested that structural equation models enable the specification of complex interrelationships between observed and latent constructs. Hair et al. ( 2019 ) argued that, in recent years, the number of articles published using partial least squares SEM has increased significantly in contrast to covariance-based SEM. In addition, partial least squares SEM using SmartPLS is more appealing for several scholars as it enables them to predict more complex models with several variables, indicator constructs, and structural paths, instead of imposing distributional assumptions on the data (Hair et al., 2019 ). Therefore, this study utilized the partial least squares SEM approach using SmartPLS 3.0.

Common Method Bias (CMB) Test

This study used the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test to measure the sampling adequacy and ensure data suitability. The KMO test result was 0.874, which is greater than an acceptable threshold of 0.50 (Ali Qalati et al., 2021 ; Shrestha, 2021 ), and hence considered suitable for explanatory factor analysis. Moreover, Bartlett's test results demonstrated a significance level of 0.001, which is considered good as it is below the accepted threshold of 0.05.

The term CMB is associated with Campbell and Fiske ( 1959 ), who highlighted the importance of CMB and identified that a portion of variance in the research may be due to the methods employed. It occurs when all scales of the study are measured at the same time using a single questionnaire survey (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986 ); subsequently, estimates of the relationship among the variables might be distorted by the impacts of CMB. It is considered a serious issue that has a potential to “jeopardize” the validity of the study findings (Tehseen et al., 2017 ). There are several reasons for CMB: (1) it mainly occurs due to response “tendencies that raters can apply uniformity across the measures;” and (2) it also occurs due to similarities in the wording and structure of the survey items that produce similar results (Jordan and Troth, 2019 ). Harman's single factor test and a full collinearity approach were employed to ensure that the data was free from CMB (Tehseen et al., 2017 ; Jordan and Troth, 2019 ; Ali Qalati et al., 2021 ). Harman's single factor test showed a single factor explained only 22.8% of the total variance, which is far below the 50.0% acceptable threshold (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ).

Additionally, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was used, which is a measure of the amount of multicollinearity in a set of multiple regression constructs and also considered a way of detecting CMB (Hair et al., 2019 ). Hair et al. ( 2019 ) suggested that the acceptable threshold for the VIF is 3.0; as the computed VIFs for the present study ranged from 1.189 to 1.626, CMB is not a key concern (see Table 2 ). Bagozzi et al. ( 1991 ) suggested a correlation-matrix procedure to detect CMB. Common method bias is evident if correlation among the principle constructs is >0.9 (Tehseen et al., 2020 ); however, no values >0.9 were found in this study (see section Assessment of Measurement Model). This study used a two-step approach to evaluate the measurement model and the structural model.

Common method bias (full collinearity VIF).

Assessment of Measurement Model

Before conducting the SEM analysis, the measurement model was assessed to examine individual item reliability, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity. Table 3 exhibits the values of outer loading used to measure an individual item's reliability (Hair et al., 2012 ). Hair et al. ( 2017 ) proposed that the value for each outer loading should be ≥0.7; following this principle, two items of phubbing (PHUB3—I get irritated if others ask me to get off my phone and talk to them; PHUB4—I use my phone even though I know it irritated others) were removed from the analysis Hair et al. ( 2019 ). According to Nunnally ( 1978 ), Cronbach's alpha values should exceed 0.7. The threshold values of constructs in this study ranged from 0.77 to 0.903. Regarding internal consistency, Bagozzi and Yi ( 1988 ) suggested that composite reliability (CR) should be ≥0.7. The coefficient value for CR in this study was between 0.857 and 0.928. Regarding convergent validity, Fornell and Larcker ( 1981 ) suggested that the average variance extracted (AVE) should be ≥0.5. Average variance extracted values in this study were between 0.60 and 0.811. Finally, regarding discriminant validity, according to Fornell and Larcker ( 1981 ), the square root of the AVE for each construct should exceed the inter-correlations of the construct with other model constructs. That was the case in this study, as shown in Table 4 .

Study measures, factor loading, and the constructs' reliability and convergent validity.

Discriminant validity and correlation.

Bold values are the square root of the AVE .

Hence, by analyzing the results of the measurement model, it can be concluded that the data are adequate for structural equation estimation.

Assessment of the Structural Model

This study used the PLS algorithm and a bootstrapping technique with 5,000 bootstraps as proposed by Hair et al. ( 2019 ) to generate the path coefficient values and their level of significance. The coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) is an important measure to assess the structural model and its explanatory power (Henseler et al., 2009 ; Hair et al., 2019 ). Table 5 and Figure 2 reveal that the R 2 value in the present study was 0.451 for psychological well-being, which means that 45.1% of changes in psychological well-being occurred due to social media use, social capital forms (i.e., bonding and bridging), social isolation, smartphone addiction, and phubbing. Cohen ( 1998 ) proposed that R 2 values of 0.60, 0.33, and 0.19 are considered substantial, moderate, and weak. Following Cohen's ( 1998 ) threshold values, this research demonstrates a moderate predicting power for psychological well-being among Mexican respondents ( Table 6 ).

Summary of path coefficients and hypothesis testing.

Structural model.

Strength of the model (Predictive relevance, coefficient of determination, and model fit indices).

Goodness of fit → SRMR = 0.063; d_ULS = 1.589; d_G = 0.512; chi-square = 2,910.744 .

Apart from the R 2 measure, the present study also used cross-validated redundancy measures, or effect sizes ( q 2 ), to assess the proposed model and validate the results (Ringle et al., 2012 ). Hair et al. ( 2019 ) suggested that a model exhibiting an effect size q 2 > 0 has predictive relevance ( Table 6 ). This study's results evidenced that it has a 0.15 <0.29 <0.35 (medium) predictive relevance, as 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered small, medium, and large, respectively (Cohen, 1998 ). Regarding the goodness-of-fit indices, Hair et al. ( 2019 ) suggested the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) to evaluate the goodness of fit. Standardized root mean square is an absolute measure of fit: a value of zero indicates perfect fit and a value <0.08 is considered good fit (Hair et al., 2019 ). This study exhibits an adequate model fitness level with an SRMR value of 0.063 ( Table 6 ).

Table 5 reveals that all hypotheses of the study were accepted base on the criterion ( p -value < 0.05). H1a (β = 0.332, t = 10.283, p = 0.001) was confirmed, with the second most robust positive and significant relationship (between social media use and bonding social capital). In addition, this study evidenced a positive and significant relationship between bonding social capital and psychological well-being (β = 0.127, t = 4.077, p = 0.001); therefore, H1b was accepted. Regarding social media use and bridging social capital, the present study found the most robust positive and significant impact (β = 0.439, t = 15.543, p = 0.001); therefore, H2a was accepted. The study also evidenced a positive and significant association between bridging social capital and psychological well-being (β = 0.561, t = 20.953, p = 0.001); thus, H2b was accepted. The present study evidenced a significant effect of social media use on social isolation (β = 0.145, t = 4.985, p = 0.001); thus, H3a was accepted. In addition, this study accepted H3b (β = −0.051, t = 2.01, p = 0.044). Furthermore, this study evidenced a positive and significant effect of social media use on smartphone addiction (β = 0.223, t = 6.241, p = 0.001); therefore, H4a was accepted. Furthermore, the present study found that smartphone addiction has a negative significant influence on psychological well-being (β = −0.068, t = 2.387, p = 0.017); therefore, H4b was accepted. Regarding the relationship between smartphone addiction and phubbing, this study found a positive and significant effect of smartphone addiction on phubbing (β = 0.244, t = 7.555, p = 0.001); therefore, H5 was accepted. Furthermore, the present research evidenced a positive and significant influence of phubbing on psychological well-being (β = 0.137, t = 4.938, p = 0.001); therefore, H6 was accepted. Finally, the study provides interesting findings on the indirect effect of social media use on psychological well-being ( t -value > 1.96 and p -value < 0.05); therefore, H7a–d were accepted.

Furthermore, to test the mediating analysis, Preacher and Hayes's ( 2008 ) approach was used. The key characteristic of an indirect relationship is that it involves a third construct, which plays a mediating role in the relationship between the independent and dependent constructs. Logically, the effect of A (independent construct) on C (the dependent construct) is mediated by B (a third variable). Preacher and Hayes ( 2008 ) suggested the following: B is a construct acting as a mediator if A significantly influences B, A significantly accounts for variability in C, B significantly influences C when controlling for A, and the influence of A on C decreases significantly when B is added simultaneously with A as a predictor of C. According to Matthews et al. ( 2018 ), if the indirect effect is significant while the direct insignificant, full mediation has occurred, while if both direct and indirect effects are substantial, partial mediation has occurred. This study evidenced that there is partial mediation in the proposed construct ( Table 5 ). Following Preacher and Hayes ( 2008 ) this study evidenced that there is partial mediation in the proposed construct, because the relationship between independent variable (social media use) and dependent variable (psychological well-being) is significant ( p -value < 0.05) and indirect effect among them after introducing mediator (bonding social capital, bridging social capital, social isolation, and smartphone addiction) is also significant ( p -value < 0.05), therefore it is evidenced that when there is a significant effect both direct and indirect it's called partial mediation.

The present study reveals that the social and psychological impacts of social media use among University students is becoming more complex as there is continuing advancement in technology, offering a range of affordable interaction opportunities. Based on the 940 valid responses collected, all the hypotheses were accepted ( p < 0.05).

H1a finding suggests that social media use is a significant influencing factor of bonding social capital. This implies that, during a pandemic, social media use enables students to continue their close relationships with family members, friends, and those with whom they have close ties. This finding is in line with prior work of Chan ( 2015 ) and Ellison et al. ( 2007 ), who evidenced that social bonding capital is predicted by Facebook use and having a mobile phone. H1b findings suggest that, when individuals believe that social communication can help overcome obstacles to interaction and encourage more virtual self-disclosure, social media use can improve trust and promote the establishment of social associations, thereby enhancing well-being. These findings are in line with those of Gong et al. ( 2021 ), who also witnessed the significant effect of bonding social capital on immigrants' psychological well-being, subsequently calling for the further evidence to confirm the proposed relationship.

The findings of the present study related to H2a suggest that students are more likely to use social media platforms to receive more emotional support, increase their ability to mobilize others, and to build social networks, which leads to social belongingness. Furthermore, the findings suggest that social media platforms enable students to accumulate and maintain bridging social capital; further, online classes can benefit students who feel shy when participating in offline classes. This study supports the previous findings of Chan ( 2015 ) and Karikari et al. ( 2017 ). Notably, the present study is not limited to a single social networking platform, taking instead a holistic view of social media. The H2b findings are consistent with those of Bano et al. ( 2019 ), who also confirmed the link between bonding social capital and psychological well-being among University students using WhatsApp as social media platform, as well as those of Chen and Li ( 2017 ).

The H3a findings suggest that, during the COVID-19 pandemic when most people around the world have had limited offline or face-to-face interaction and have used social media to connect with families, friends, and social communities, they have often been unable to connect with them. This is due to many individuals avoiding using social media because of fake news, financial constraints, and a lack of trust in social media; thus, the lack both of offline and online interaction, coupled with negative experiences on social media use, enhances the level of social isolation (Hajek and König, 2021 ). These findings are consistent with those of Adnan and Anwar ( 2020 ). The H3b suggests that higher levels of social isolation have a negative impact on psychological well-being. These result indicating that, consistent with Choi and Noh ( 2019 ), social isolation is negatively and significantly related to psychological well-being.

The H4a results suggests that substantial use of social media use leads to an increase in smartphone addiction. These findings are in line with those of Jeong et al. ( 2016 ), who stated that the excessive use of smartphones for social media, entertainment (watching videos, listening to music), and playing e-games was more likely to lead to smartphone addiction. These findings also confirm the previous work of Jeong et al. ( 2016 ), Salehan and Negahban ( 2013 ), and Swar and Hameed ( 2017 ). The H4b results revealed that a single unit increase in smartphone addiction results in a 6.8% decrease in psychological well-being. These findings are in line with those of Tangmunkongvorakul et al. ( 2019 ), who showed that students with higher levels of smartphone addiction had lower psychological well-being scores. These findings also support those of Shoukat ( 2019 ), who showed that smartphone addiction inversely influences individuals' mental health.

This suggests that the greater the smartphone addiction, the greater the phubbing. The H5 findings are in line with those of Chatterjee ( 2020 ), Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas ( 2016 ), Guazzini et al. ( 2019 ), and Tonacci et al. ( 2019 ), who also evidenced a significant impact of smartphone addiction and phubbing. Similarly, Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas ( 2018 ) corroborated that smartphone addiction is the main predictor of phubbing behavior. However, these findings are inconsistent with those of Vallespín et al. ( 2017 ), who found a negative influence of phubbing.

The H6 results suggests that phubbing is one of the significant predictors of psychological well-being. Furthermore, these findings suggest that, when phubbers use a cellphone during interaction with someone, especially during the current pandemic, and they are connected with many family members, friends, and relatives; therefore, this kind of action gives them more satisfaction, which simultaneously results in increased relaxation and decreased depression (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2018 ). These findings support those of Davey et al. ( 2018 ), who evidenced that phubbing has a significant influence on adolescents and social health students in India.

The findings showed a significant and positive effect of social media use on psychological well-being both through bridging and bonding social capital. However, a significant and negative effect of social media use on psychological well-being through smartphone addiction and through social isolation was also found. Hence, this study provides evidence that could shed light on the contradictory contributions in the literature suggesting both positive (e.g., Chen and Li, 2017 ; Twenge and Campbell, 2019 ; Roberts and David, 2020 ) and negative (e.g., Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas, 2016 ; Jiao et al., 2017 ; Choi and Noh, 2019 ; Chatterjee, 2020 ) effects of social media use on psychological well-being. This study concludes that the overall impact is positive, despite some degree of negative indirect impact.

Theoretical Contributions

This study's findings contribute to the current literature, both by providing empirical evidence for the relationships suggested by extant literature and by demonstrating the relevance of adopting a more complex approach that considers, in particular, the indirect effect of social media on psychological well-being. As such, this study constitutes a basis for future research (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016 ; Whaite et al., 2018 ) aiming to understand the impacts of social media use and to find ways to reduce its possible negative impacts.

In line with Kim and Kim ( 2017 ), who stressed the importance of heterogeneous social networks in improving social capital, this paper suggests that, to positively impact psychological well-being, social media usage should be associated both with strong and weak ties, as both are important in building social capital, and hence associated with its bonding and bridging facets. Interestingly, though, bridging capital was shown as having the greatest impact on psychological well-being. Thus, the importance of wider social horizons, the inclusion in different groups, and establishing new connections (Putnam, 1995 , 2000 ) with heterogeneous weak ties (Li and Chen, 2014 ) are highlighted in this paper.

Practical Contributions

These findings are significant for practitioners, particularly those interested in dealing with the possible negative impacts of social media use on psychological well-being. Although social media use is associated with factors that negatively impact psychological well-being, particularly smartphone addiction and social isolation, these negative impacts can be lessened if the connections with both strong and weak ties are facilitated and featured by social media. Indeed, social media platforms offer several features, from facilitating communication with family, friends, and acquaintances, to identifying and offering access to other people with shared interests. However, it is important to access heterogeneous weak ties (Li and Chen, 2014 ) so that social media offers access to wider sources of information and new resources, hence enhancing bridging social capital.

Limitations and Directions for Future Studies

This study is not without limitations. For example, this study used a convenience sampling approach to reach to a large number of respondents. Further, this study was conducted in Mexico only, limiting the generalizability of the results; future research should therefore use a cross-cultural approach to investigate the impacts of social media use on psychological well-being and the mediating role of proposed constructs (e.g., bonding and bridging social capital, social isolation, and smartphone addiction). The sample distribution may also be regarded as a limitation of the study because respondents were mainly well-educated and female. Moreover, although Internet channels represent a particularly suitable way to approach social media users, the fact that this study adopted an online survey does not guarantee a representative sample of the population. Hence, extrapolating the results requires caution, and study replication is recommended, particularly with social media users from other countries and cultures. The present study was conducted in the context of mainly University students, primarily well-educated females, via an online survey on in Mexico; therefore, the findings represent a snapshot at a particular time. Notably, however, the effect of social media use is increasing due to COVID-19 around the globe and is volatile over time.

Two of the proposed hypotheses of this study, namely the expected negative impacts of social media use on social isolation and of phubbing on psychological well-being, should be further explored. One possible approach is to consider the type of connections (i.e., weak and strong ties) to explain further the impact of social media usage on social isolation. Apparently, the prevalence of weak ties, although facilitating bridging social capital, may have an adverse impact in terms of social isolation. Regarding phubbing, the fact that the findings point to a possible positive impact on psychological well-being should be carefully addressed, specifically by psychology theorists and scholars, in order to identify factors that may help further understand this phenomenon. Other suggestions for future research include using mixed-method approaches, as qualitative studies could help further validate the results and provide complementary perspectives on the relationships between the considered variables.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Jiangsu University. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. This study is supported by the National Statistics Research Project of China (2016LY96).

• Abbas R., Mesch G. (2018). Do rich teens get richer? Facebook use and the link between offline and online social capital among Palestinian youth in Israel . Inf. Commun. Soc. 21 , 63–79. 10.1080/1369118X.2016.1261168 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Adnan M., Anwar K. (2020). Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: students' perspectives . J. Pedagog. Sociol. Psychol. 2 , 45–51. 10.33902/JPSP.2020261309 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ali Qalati S., Li W., Ahmed N., Ali Mirani M., Khan A. (2021). Examining the factors affecting SME performance: the mediating role of social media adoption . Sustainability 13 :75. 10.3390/su13010075 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bagozzi R. P., Yi Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models . J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 16 , 74–94. 10.1007/BF02723327 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bagozzi R. P., Yi Y., Phillips L. W. (1991). Assessing construct validity in organizational research . Admin. Sci. Q. 36 , 421–458. 10.2307/2393203 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bano S., Cisheng W., Khan A. N., Khan N. A. (2019). WhatsApp use and student's psychological well-being: role of social capital and social integration . Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 103 , 200–208. 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.06.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barbosa B., Chkoniya V., Simoes D., Filipe S., Santos C. A. (2020). Always connected: generation Y smartphone use and social capital . Rev. Ibérica Sist. Tecnol. Inf. E 35 , 152–166. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bekalu M. A., McCloud R. F., Viswanath K. (2019). Association of social media use with social well-being, positive mental health, and self-rated health: disentangling routine use from emotional connection to use . Health Educ. Behav. 46(2 Suppl), 69S−80S. 10.1177/1090198119863768 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown G., Michinov N. (2019). Measuring latent ties on Facebook: a novel approach to studying their prevalence and relationship with bridging social capital . Technol. Soc. 59 :101176. 10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.101176 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Campbell D. T., Fiske D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix . Psychol. Bull. 56 , 81–105. 10.1037/h0046016 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carlson J. R., Zivnuska S., Harris R. B., Harris K. J., Carlson D. S. (2016). Social media use in the workplace: a study of dual effects . J. Org. End User Comput. 28 , 15–31. 10.4018/JOEUC.2016010102 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chan M. (2015). Mobile phones and the good life: examining the relationships among mobile use, social capital and subjective well-being . New Media Soc. 17 , 96–113. 10.1177/1461444813516836 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chappell N. L., Badger M. (1989). Social isolation and well-being . J. Gerontol. 44 , S169–S176. 10.1093/geronj/44.5.s169 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chatterjee S. (2020). Antecedents of phubbing: from technological and psychological perspectives . J. Syst. Inf. Technol. 22 , 161–118. 10.1108/JSIT-05-2019-0089 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen H.-T., Li X. (2017). The contribution of mobile social media to social capital and psychological well-being: examining the role of communicative use, friending and self-disclosure . Comput. Hum. Behav. 75 , 958–965. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.011 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Choi D.-H., Noh G.-Y. (2019). The influence of social media use on attitude toward suicide through psychological well-being, social isolation, and social support . Inf. Commun. Soc. 23 , 1–17. 10.1080/1369118X.2019.1574860 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chotpitayasunondh V., Douglas K. M. (2016). How phubbing becomes the norm: the antecedents and consequences of snubbing via smartphone . Comput. Hum. Behav. 63 , 9–18. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.018 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chotpitayasunondh V., Douglas K. M. (2018). The effects of phubbing on social interaction . J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 48 , 304–316. 10.1111/jasp.12506 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen J. (1998). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davey S., Davey A., Raghav S. K., Singh J. V., Singh N., Blachnio A., et al.. (2018). Predictors and consequences of phubbing among adolescents and youth in India: an impact evaluation study . J. Fam. Community Med. 25 , 35–42. 10.4103/jfcm.JFCM_71_17 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• David M. E., Roberts J. A., Christenson B. (2018). Too much of a good thing: investigating the association between actual smartphone use and individual well-being . Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 34 , 265–275. 10.1080/10447318.2017.1349250 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dhir A., Yossatorn Y., Kaur P., Chen S. (2018). Online social media fatigue and psychological wellbeing—a study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, fatigue, anxiety and depression . Int. J. Inf. Manag. 40 , 141–152. 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.012 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dutot V., Bergeron F. (2016). From strategic orientation to social media orientation: improving SMEs' performance on social media . J. Small Bus. Enterp. Dev. 23 , 1165–1190. 10.1108/JSBED-11-2015-0160 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ellison N. B., Steinfield C., Lampe C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook friends: Social capital and college students' use of online social network sites . J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 12 , 1143–1168. 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fan M., Huang Y., Qalati S. A., Shah S. M. M., Ostic D., Pu Z. (2021). Effects of information overload, communication overload, and inequality on digital distrust: a cyber-violence behavior mechanism . Front. Psychol. 12 :643981. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643981 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fornell C., Larcker D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error . J. Market. Res. 18 , 39–50. 10.1177/002224378101800104 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gökçearslan S., Uluyol Ç., Sahin S. (2018). Smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, stress and social support among University students: a path analysis . Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 91 , 47–54. 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.05.036 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gong S., Xu P., Wang S. (2021). Social capital and psychological well-being of Chinese immigrants in Japan . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18 :547. 10.3390/ijerph18020547 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guazzini A., Duradoni M., Capelli A., Meringolo P. (2019). An explorative model to assess individuals' phubbing risk . Fut. Internet 11 :21. 10.3390/fi11010021 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hair J. F., Risher J. J., Sarstedt M., Ringle C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM . Eur. Bus. Rev. 31 , 2–24. 10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hair J. F., Sarstedt M., Pieper T. M., Ringle C. M. (2012). The use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in strategic management research: a review of past practices and recommendations for future applications . Long Range Plann. 45 , 320–340. 10.1016/j.lrp.2012.09.008 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hair J. F., Sarstedt M., Ringle C. M., Gudergan S. P. (2017). Advanced Issues in Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hajek A., König H.-H. (2021). Social isolation and loneliness of older adults in times of the CoViD-19 pandemic: can use of online social media sites and video chats assist in mitigating social isolation and loneliness? Gerontology 67 , 121–123. 10.1159/000512793 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Henseler J., Ringle C. M., Sinkovics R. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing, in New Challenges to International Marketing , Vol. 20, eds R.R. Sinkovics and P.N. Ghauri (Bigley: Emerald; ), 277–319. [ Google Scholar ]
• Holliman A. J., Waldeck D., Jay B., Murphy S., Atkinson E., Collie R. J., et al.. (2021). Adaptability and social support: examining links with psychological wellbeing among UK students and non-students . Fron. Psychol. 12 :636520. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636520 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jeong S.-H., Kim H., Yum J.-Y., Hwang Y. (2016). What type of content are smartphone users addicted to? SNS vs. games . Comput. Hum. Behav. 54 , 10–17. 10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.035 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jiao Y., Jo M.-S., Sarigöllü E. (2017). Social value and content value in social media: two paths to psychological well-being . J. Org. Comput. Electr. Commer. 27 , 3–24. 10.1080/10919392.2016.1264762 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jordan P. J., Troth A. C. (2019). Common method bias in applied settings: the dilemma of researching in organizations . Austr. J. Manag. 45 , 3–14. 10.1177/0312896219871976 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Karikari S., Osei-Frimpong K., Owusu-Frimpong N. (2017). Evaluating individual level antecedents and consequences of social media use in Ghana . Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 123 , 68–79. 10.1016/j.techfore.2017.06.023 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kemp S. (January 30, 2020). Digital 2020: 3.8 billion people use social media. We Are Social . Available online at: https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/01/digital-2020-3-8-billion-people-use-social-media .
• Kim B., Kim Y. (2017). College students' social media use and communication network heterogeneity: implications for social capital and subjective well-being . Comput. Hum. Behav. 73 , 620–628. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.033 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim K., Milne G. R., Bahl S. (2018). Smart phone addiction and mindfulness: an intergenerational comparison . Int. J. Pharmaceut. Healthcare Market. 12 , 25–43. 10.1108/IJPHM-08-2016-0044 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kircaburun K., Alhabash S., Tosuntaş S. B., Griffiths M. D. (2020). Uses and gratifications of problematic social media use among University students: a simultaneous examination of the big five of personality traits, social media platforms, and social media use motives . Int. J. Mental Health Addict. 18 , 525–547. 10.1007/s11469-018-9940-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leong L.-Y., Hew T.-S., Ooi K.-B., Lee V.-H., Hew J.-J. (2019). A hybrid SEM-neural network analysis of social media addiction . Expert Syst. Appl. 133 , 296–316. 10.1016/j.eswa.2019.05.024 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li L., Griffiths M. D., Mei S., Niu Z. (2020a). Fear of missing out and smartphone addiction mediates the relationship between positive and negative affect and sleep quality among Chinese University students . Front. Psychiatr. 11 :877. 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00877 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li W., Qalati S. A., Khan M. A. S., Kwabena G. Y., Erusalkina D., Anwar F. (2020b). Value co-creation and growth of social enterprises in developing countries: moderating role of environmental dynamics . Entrep. Res. J. 2020 :20190359. 10.1515/erj-2019-0359 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li X., Chen W. (2014). Facebook or Renren? A comparative study of social networking site use and social capital among Chinese international students in the United States . Comput. Hum. Behav . 35 , 116–123. 10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.012 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Matthews L., Hair J. F., Matthews R. (2018). PLS-SEM: the holy grail for advanced analysis . Mark. Manag. J. 28 , 1–13. [ Google Scholar ]
• Meshi D., Cotten S. R., Bender A. R. (2020). Problematic social media use and perceived social isolation in older adults: a cross-sectional study . Gerontology 66 , 160–168. 10.1159/000502577 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mou J., Shin D.-H., Cohen J. (2017). Understanding trust and perceived usefulness in the consumer acceptance of an e-service: a longitudinal investigation . Behav. Inf. Technol. 36 , 125–139. 10.1080/0144929X.2016.1203024 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nunnally J. (1978). Psychometric Methods . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Oghazi P., Karlsson S., Hellström D., Hjort K. (2018). Online purchase return policy leniency and purchase decision: mediating role of consumer trust . J. Retail. Consumer Serv. 41 , 190–200. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pang H. (2018). Exploring the beneficial effects of social networking site use on Chinese students' perceptions of social capital and psychological well-being in Germany . Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 67 , 1–11. 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2018.08.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Podsakoff P. M., MacKenzie S. B., Lee J.-Y., Podsakoff N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies . J. Appl. Psychol. 88 , 879–903. 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Podsakoff P. M., Organ D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: problems and prospects . J. Manag. 12 , 531–544. 10.1177/014920638601200408 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Preacher K. J., Hayes A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models . Behav Res. Methods 40 , 879–891. 10.3758/brm.40.3.879 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Primack B. A., Shensa A., Sidani J. E., Whaite E. O., yi Lin L., Rosen D., et al.. (2017). Social media use and perceived social isolation among young adults in the US . Am. J. Prev. Med. 53 , 1–8. 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.010 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Putnam R. D. (1995). Tuning in, tuning out: the strange disappearance of social capital in America . Polit. Sci. Polit. 28 , 664–684. 10.2307/420517 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Putnam R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community . New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. [ Google Scholar ]
• Qalati S. A., Ostic D., Fan M., Dakhan S. A., Vela E. G., Zufar Z., et al.. (2021). The general public knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding COVID-19 during the lockdown in Asian developing countries . Int. Q. Commun. Health Educ. 2021 :272684X211004945. 10.1177/0272684X211004945 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reer F., Tang W. Y., Quandt T. (2019). Psychosocial well-being and social media engagement: the mediating roles of social comparison orientation and fear of missing out . New Media Soc. 21 , 1486–1505. 10.1177/1461444818823719 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ringle C., Wende S., Becker J. (2015). SmartPLS 3 [software] . Bönningstedt: SmartPLS. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ringle C. M., Sarstedt M., Straub D. (2012). A critical look at the use of PLS-SEM in MIS Quarterly. MIS Q . 36, iii–xiv. 10.2307/41410402 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Roberts J. A., David M. E. (2020). The social media party: fear of missing out (FoMO), social media intensity, connection, and well-being . Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 36 , 386–392. 10.1080/10447318.2019.1646517 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salehan M., Negahban A. (2013). Social networking on smartphones: when mobile phones become addictive . Comput. Hum. Behav. 29 , 2632–2639. 10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sarstedt M., Cheah J.-H. (2019). Partial least squares structural equation modeling using SmartPLS: a software review . J. Mark. Anal. 7 , 196–202. 10.1057/s41270-019-00058-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schinka K. C., VanDulmen M. H., Bossarte R., Swahn M. (2012). Association between loneliness and suicidality during middle childhood and adolescence: longitudinal effects and the role of demographic characteristics . J. Psychol. Interdiscipl. Appl. 146 , 105–118. 10.1080/00223980.2011.584084 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shi S., Mu R., Lin L., Chen Y., Kou G., Chen X.-J. (2018). The impact of perceived online service quality on swift guanxi . Internet Res. 28 , 432–455. 10.1108/IntR-12-2016-0389 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shoukat S. (2019). Cell phone addiction and psychological and physiological health in adolescents . EXCLI J. 18 , 47–50. 10.17179/excli2018-2006 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shrestha N. (2021). Factor analysis as a tool for survey analysis . Am. J. Appl. Math. Stat. 9 , 4–11. 10.12691/ajams-9-1-2 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stouthuysen K., Teunis I., Reusen E., Slabbinck H. (2018). Initial trust and intentions to buy: The effect of vendor-specific guarantees, customer reviews and the role of online shopping experience . Electr. Commer. Res. Appl. 27 , 23–38. 10.1016/j.elerap.2017.11.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Swar B., Hameed T. (2017). Fear of missing out, social media engagement, smartphone addiction and distraction: moderating role of self-help mobile apps-based interventions in the youth , Paper presented at the 10th International Conference on Health Informatics (Porto). [ Google Scholar ]
• Tangmunkongvorakul A., Musumari P. M., Thongpibul K., Srithanaviboonchai K., Techasrivichien T., Suguimoto S. P., et al.. (2019). Association of excessive smartphone use with psychological well-being among University students in Chiang Mai, Thailand . PLoS ONE 14 :e0210294. 10.1371/journal.pone.0210294 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tateno M., Teo A. R., Ukai W., Kanazawa J., Katsuki R., Kubo H., et al.. (2019). Internet addiction, smartphone addiction, and hikikomori trait in Japanese young adult: social isolation and social network . Front. Psychiatry 10 :455. 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00455 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tefertiller A. C., Maxwell L. C., Morris D. L. (2020). Social media goes to the movies: fear of missing out, social capital, and social motivations of cinema attendance . Mass Commun. Soc. 23 , 378–399. 10.1080/15205436.2019.1653468 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tehseen S., Qureshi Z. H., Johara F., Ramayah T. (2020). Assessing dimensions of entrepreneurial competencies: a type II (reflective-formative) measurement approach using PLS-SEM . J. Sustain. Sci. Manage. 15 , 108–145. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tehseen S., Ramayah T., Sajilan S. (2017). Testing and controlling for common method variance: a review of available methods . J. Manag. Sci. 4 , 146–165. 10.20547/jms.2014.1704202 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tonacci A., Billeci L., Sansone F., Masci A., Pala A. P., Domenici C., et al.. (2019). An innovative, unobtrusive approach to investigate smartphone interaction in nonaddicted subjects based on wearable sensors: a pilot study . Medicina (Kaunas) 55 :37. 10.3390/medicina55020037 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Twenge J. M., Campbell W. K. (2019). Media use is linked to lower psychological well-being: evidence from three datasets . Psychiatr. Q. 90 , 311–331. 10.1007/s11126-019-09630-7 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vallespín M., Molinillo S., Muñoz-Leiva F. (2017). Segmentation and explanation of smartphone use for travel planning based on socio-demographic and behavioral variables . Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 117 , 605–619. 10.1108/IMDS-03-2016-0089 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Den Eijnden R. J., Lemmens J. S., Valkenburg P. M. (2016). The social media disorder scale . Comput. Hum. Behav. 61 , 478–487. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.038 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Whaite E. O., Shensa A., Sidani J. E., Colditz J. B., Primack B. A. (2018). Social media use, personality characteristics, and social isolation among young adults in the United States . Pers. Indiv. Differ. 124 , 45–50. 10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.030 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Williams D. (2006). On and off the'net: scales for social capital in an online era . J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 11 , 593–628. 10.1016/j.1083-6101.2006.00029.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Why young brains are especially vulnerable to social media

The science behind why apps like TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat impact your child’s brain in a different way than your adult brain.

• Mental Health
• Social Media and Internet
• Technology and Design

Starting around age 10, children’s brains undergo a fundamental shift that spurs them to seek social rewards, including attention and approval from their peers.

At the same time, we hand them smartphones (Kids & Tech, Influence Central, 2018).

Social media platforms like Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, and Snapchat have provided crucial opportunities for interaction that are a normal part of development—especially during a time of severe isolation prompted by the pandemic. But they’ve also been increasingly linked to mental health problems , including anxiety, depressive symptoms, and body image concerns.

So, why do kids face a higher risk of harm on social media?

Let’s dig deeper.

[ Related: Potential risks of content, features, and functions: The science of how social media affects youth ]

Social rewards and the brain

Between the ages of 10 and 12, changes in the brain make social rewards—compliments on a new hairstyle, laughter from a classmate—start to feel a lot more satisfying. Specifically, receptors for the “happy hormones” oxytocin and dopamine multiply in a part of the brain called the ventral striatum, making preteens extra sensitive to attention and admiration from others.

[ Related: What neuroscience tells us about the teenage brain ]

“We know that social media activity is closely tied to the ventral striatum,” said Mitch Prinstein, APA’s chief science officer. “This region gets a dopamine and oxytocin rush whenever we experience social rewards.”

Right next door to the ventral striatum lies the ventral pallidum, a region of the brain key for motivating action. These structures, which lie beneath the more recently evolved cortex, are older parts of the brain that drive instinctual behaviors.

In adulthood, social media use is also linked to activation in the brain’s reward centers, but two key differences may lessen harm, Prinstein said. First, adults tend to have a fixed sense of self that relies less on feedback from peers. Second, adults have a more mature prefrontal cortex, an area that can help regulate emotional responses to social rewards.

Permanent and public

In youth, the drive for approval has historically helped kids and teens develop healthy social skills and connections. But arriving at school in a new pair of designer jeans, hoping your crush will smile at you in the hallway, is worlds away from posting a video on TikTok that may get thousands of views and likes, Prinstein said.

Part of what makes online interactions so different from in-person ones is their permanent—and often public—nature, according to research by Jacqueline Nesi, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology at Brown University ( Psychological Inquiry , Vol. 21, No. 3, 2020).

“After you walk away from a regular conversation, you don’t know if the other person liked it, or if anyone else liked it—and it’s over,” Prinstein said. “That’s not true on social media.”

Instead, kids, their friends, and even people they’ve never met can continue to seek, deliver, or withhold social rewards in the form of likes, comments, views, and follows.

As children and teens increasingly go online for entertainment and connection, parents, scholars, and policymakers are concerned that young people’s biology is making them particularly vulnerable to—and in some cases, even exploited by—social media.

Protecting young users

Further research shows how this biological vulnerability plays out in the lives of children and teens. Younger social media users are more likely than older ones to have body image issues, while kids who use Instagram or Snapchat before age 11 face a higher risk of online harassment (Saiphoo, A. N., & Vahedi, Z., Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 101, 2019; Charmaraman, L., et al., Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 127, 2022).

These and other findings have prompted recommendations from the U.S. Surgeon General, Vivek Murthy, MD, that social media and other technology companies help minimize fallout from their products, including by prioritizing the wellbeing of young users and by sharing their data with independent researchers ( Protecting youth mental health (PDF, 1.01MB) , The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory, 2021).

“It’s time we stopped trying to make a profit on kids’ developing brains,” Prinstein said. “For the first time in human history, we have given up autonomous control over our social relationships and interactions, and we now allow machine learning and artificial intelligence to make decisions for us.”

“We have already seen how this has created tremendous vulnerabilities to our way of life. It’s even scarier to consider how this may be changing brain development for an entire generation of youth,” he said.

• APA chief science officer calls on Congress to invest $1 billion in youth mental health research
• Testimony: Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders: Responding to the Growing Crisis (PDF, 197KB)
• Children’s mental health is in crisis
• How can we minimize Instagram's harmful effects?
• How social media affects teens’ mental health and well-being

Contact APA Office of Public Affairs

You may also like.

How social media affects our lives ​

multiple studies have found a strong link between heavy social media and an increased risk for depression, anxiety, loneliness, self-harm, and even suicidal thoughts. Social media may promote negative experiences such as: Inadequacy about your life or appearance

Hope it helps. :)

New questions in English

• Secondary School

How social media affects our lives?

Your answer here!

Social media has a huge impact on individuals and their lives. While some impacts can be positive, social media has been shown to negatively affect things like our moods and stress levels. Addiction is caused by social media too.

New questions in English

• High School

Essay explaining the effect that one social media platform has on people's lives.

Ai-generated answer.

• 7.2K people helped

People who are addicted to social media may experience negative side effects such as eye strain, social withdrawal or lack of sleep. Stress. If you spend your time researching problems or arguing with people, you may experience stress, which can have a negative impact on your health. Emotional connections.

Explanation:

I thought and wrote about social media.

• 11.5K answers
• 1.9M people helped

Social media platforms like Faceb*ok, Twi'tter, Ins'tagram, and Tik-Tok have transformed communication and information sharing, impacted political perceptions, and shaped public policy discussions. While enabling rapid interaction and diverse information flow, they also pose challenges related to misinformation, cyberbullying, and the extent of their influence on societal matters.

Social media platforms, such as Faceb*ok and Twi'tter, have significantly influenced people's lives by transforming the way we communicate, share information, and form our opinions on various matters. The rapid expansion of social media has led to the creation of vast networks where information can spread quickly, and interactions are almost instantaneous. This has had both positive and negative effects on society, changing the landscape of personal relationships, shaping political discourse, and even altering the dynamics of digital marketing.

Platforms like Ins'tagram and Tik-Tok are predominantly used by younger audiences and tend to focus on social and entertainment content, while sites like Reddit and Tumblr foster topic-based and controversial discussions. The anonymity feature on some platforms has given rise to issues such as cyberbullying and threats. Alongside this, influential figures and organizations use these networks to communicate directly with the public, bypassing traditional media outlets. This democratisation of content creation, however, comes with the challenge of misinformation, evident in incidents like the spread of the QAnon conspiracy through social media.

The influence of social media is not limited to personal communication; it also affects political perceptions and public policy. The use of algorithmic curation by these platforms can result in filter bubbles, distorting the user's perception of the diversity and complexity of public opinion. Conversely, the real-time sharing of audio-visual content can enrich the public's understanding of societal issues. The question of how much influence social media companies should exert on political information and public policy is becoming increasingly pertinent.

Still have questions?

Get more answers for free, you might be interested in, new questions in english.