kashmir conflict essay

The Kashmir conflict: How did it start?

The dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir was sparked by a fateful decision in 1947, and has resulted in decades of violence, including two wars.

Since 1947, India and Pakistan have been locked in conflict over Kashmir, a majority-Muslim region in the northernmost part of India. The mountainous, 86,000-square-mile territory was once a princely state. Now, it is claimed by both India and Pakistan.

The roots of the conflict lie in the countries’ shared colonial past. From the 17th to the 20th century, Britain ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, first indirectly through the British East India Company, then from 1858 directly through the British crown. Over time, Britain’s power over its colony weakened, and a growing nationalist movement threatened the crown’s slipping rule.

Though it feared civil war between India’s Hindu majority and Muslim minority, Britain faced increasing pressure to grant independence to its colony. After World War II, Parliament decided British rule in India should end by 1948.

Britain had historically had separate electorates for Muslim citizens and reserved some political seats specifically for Muslims; that not only hemmed Muslims into a minority status, but fueled a growing Muslim separatist movement. Mohammad Ali Jinnah , a politician who headed up India’s Muslim League, began demanding a separate nation for India’s Muslim population.

“It is high time that the British Government applied their mind definitely to the division of India and the establishment of Pakistan and Hindustan, which means freedom for both,” Jinnah said in 1945 .

As religious riots broke out across British India, leaving tens of thousands dead , British and Indian leaders began to seriously consider a partition of the subcontinent based on religion. On August 14, 1947, the independent, Muslim-majority nation of Pakistan was formed. The Hindu-majority independent nation of India followed the next day.

Under the hasty terms of partition, more than 550 princely states within colonial India that were not directly governed by Britain could decide to join either new nation or remain independent.

The maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh, in June 1946.

At the time, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had a majority Muslim population, was governed by maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu. Unlike most of the princely states which aligned themselves with one nation or the other, Singh wanted independence for Kashmir. To avert pressure to join either new nation, the maharaja signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan that allowed citizens of Kashmir to continue trade and travel with the new country. India did not sign a similar standstill agreement with the princely state.

As partition-related violence raged across the two new nations , the government of Pakistan pressured Kashmir to join it. Pro-Pakistani rebels, funded by Pakistan, took over much of western Kashmir, and in September 1947, Pashtun tribesmen streamed over the border from Pakistan into Kashmir. Singh asked for India’s help in staving off the invasion, but India responded that, in order to gain military assistance, Kashmir would have to accede to India, thus becoming part of the new country.

Singh agreed and signed the Instrument of Accession , the document that aligned Kashmir with the Dominion of India, in October 1947. Kashmir was later given special status within the Indian constitution—a status which guaranteed that Kashmir would have independence over everything but communications, foreign affairs, and defense. This special status was revoked by the Indian government in August 2019.

The maharaja's fateful decision to align Kashmir with India ushered in decades of conflict in the contested region, including two wars and a longstanding insurgency.

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Ten Potential Solutions to the Kashmir Conflict

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A permanent peaceful resolution to Kashmir's conflict will require solemn diplomatic agreements between India and Pakistan that have the full support of Kashmir's most popular leaders. The most realistic solution to the Kashmir conflict would appear to be acceptance of the current Line of Control that now divides the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir as the northernmost international border of India and Pakistan. It is also important for Pakistan's elected leaders to control the Al-Qaeda and Taliban militants who inhabit its entire Afghan frontier, and to end the nurturing of suicide bombers bent on killing Indians, Americans, Sri Lankans, or other innocent people the world over. The people of Kashmir must be permitted to choose their own leaders in free and fair elections, as do Indians in every other state in that union, and New Delhi should solemnly commit to supporting Kashmir's provincial autonomy and the human rights of its people, as it does the autonomy and rights of the people of Punjab, Maharashtra, or West Bengal.

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Unveiling the education paradox: Conflict, pandemic and schooling in Kashmir

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• Published: 02 November 2024

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• Mohammad Ilyas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6005-720X 1  

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This article explores the diverse challenges encountered by the school education system in Kashmir, a region marked by armed conflict and the unparalleled disruptions induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. The author examines how these dual lockdowns, one political and the other viral, have profoundly impacted school education in Kashmir. A region known for violent instability, Kashmir has seen generations of students grapple with the closure of schools, intermittent curfews and a pervasive sense of insecurity. COVID-19 added a new layer of complexity to an already fragile educational landscape. Lockdowns, social distancing measures and the transition to online learning exacerbated the challenges already faced by Kashmiri students and educators. Employing descriptive qualitative research methods, the study presented here investigated the magnitude of disruption in school education, delving into the psychological impact on students, the adaptability of educators, and the accessibility of online learning tools within the dual lockdown scenario. The study adopted a multifaceted approach to assess the varied effects of both armed conflict and COVID-19 on education, encompassing dimensions such as security concerns, academic stress, teaching methodologies and students’ overall well-being. The findings underline the necessity for policy discourse to address the unique challenges faced by stakeholders amid the double lockdown caused by armed conflict and COVID-19.

Dévoiler le paradoxe de l’éducation : conflit, pandémie et scolarisation au Cachemire – Le présent article explore les défis divers que rencontre le système d’enseignement scolaire au Cachemire, une région marquée par un conflit armé et des perturbations sans précédent provoquées par la pandémie de COVID-19. L’auteur examine comment ces deux états d’urgence, l’un politique et l’autre d’origine virale, ont profondément affecté l’enseignement scolaire dans cette région. Connu pour sa forte instabilité, le Cachemire a vu des générations d’élèves se débattre avec des fermetures d’écoles, des couvre-feux intermittents et un sentiment d’insécurité omniprésent. La COVID-19 a encore ajouté de la complexité à un paysage éducatif déjà fragile. Les confinements, les mesures de distanciation sociale et le passage à l’apprentissage en ligne ont exacerbé les défis auxquels étaient déjà confrontés les élèves et les enseignants au Cachemire. Utilisant des méthodes de recherche qualitative descriptive, l’étude présentée ici se penche sur l’ampleur des perturbations de l’enseignement scolaire, en examinant l’impact psychologique sur les élèves, la capacité d’adaptation des enseignants et l’accessibilité aux outils d’apprentissage en ligne dans le cadre d’un double scénario de confinement. Elle adopte une approche multidimensionnelle pour évaluer les effets variés des conflits armés et de la COVID-19 sur l’éducation et englobe des dimensions telles que les préoccupations en matière de sécurité, le stress scolaire, les méthodes d’enseignement et le bien-être global des élèves. Les résultats soulignent la nécessité d’un discours politique pour relever les défis uniques auxquels les parties prenantes font face en raison du double confinement causé par le conflit armé et la pandémie de COVID-19.

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Source: Census of India (GoI 2011 ) – Prepared by researcher based on the selection criteria for data collection

Source: Field visits conducted by the author, 2022, Kashmir

Source : Fieldwork, 2022, Kashmir

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Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the support provided by each respondent during the fieldwork. Their time and patience are highly appreciated.

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Ilyas, M. Unveiling the education paradox: Conflict, pandemic and schooling in Kashmir. Int Rev Educ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-024-10077-7

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