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SOIL Science AND Management essay

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Soil science and management.

Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource, including its composition, properties, and processes. It encompasses a variety of disciplines, including geology, biology, chemistry, and physics. Soil management involves the application of knowledge gained from soil science to improve soil productivity and sustainability. Effective soil management is essential for agriculture, forestry, and other land uses, as well as for maintaining ecosystem services. Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. It is formed through the weathering of rocks and other materials, and its properties vary depending on factors such as climate, topography, and vegetation. The physical properties of soil include texture, structure, porosity, and density. These properties influence the movement of water and air through the soil, as well as the growth of plant roots. The chemical properties of soil include pH, nutrient content, and cation exchange capacity. These properties influence the availability of nutrients for plant growth, as well as the potential for soil pollution. The biological properties of soil include the diversity and activity of microorganisms, fungi, and other soil organisms. These organisms play important roles in nutrient cycling, soil structure, and plant health. Soil management practices can improve soil productivity, reduce erosion, and enhance soil health. These practices include crop rotation, cover cropping, conservation tillage, and nutrient management. Soil management practices can also have negative impacts on soil health and the environment. These impacts include soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and pollution of water resources.

Soil management practices must be tailored to the specific soil and land use conditions. Management strategies for agricultural land will differ from those for forested land, for example. Effective soil management requires a comprehensive understanding of soil science, as well as an awareness of the economic, social, and environmental factors that influence soil use. Soil science and management are essential components of sustainable land use. By understanding the properties and processes of soil, we can develop strategies to improve soil productivity and protect soil health. Effective soil management requires a combination of scientific knowledge, practical experience, and social awareness. As our understanding of soil science continues to evolve, we will be better equipped to address the challenges of soil management in a changing world.

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Course : Soil Science And Management (GEG 365)

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Essay on Soil: Meaning, Composition and Layers

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After reading this article you will learn about Soil:- 1. Introduction to Soil 2. Meaning of Soil 3. Composition 4. Soil Layers 5. Basic Properties 6. Testing of Properties.

• Essay on the Testing of Soil Properties

Essay # 1. Introduction to Soil:

Soil is the surface layer of earth on which the human civilization depends for its existence. Actually soil represents the loose upper crust of the earth surface distinctly different from the underlying bed rock.

Its depth, colour, and composition vary from place to place, but all soils are common in consisting of inorganic (mineral) and organic matter, water, and gaseous phases. Every soil is made up of a succession of layers, collectively known as soil-profile, reaching down to the parent material.

The soil-profile consists of two or more horizontal layers, called horizons. The soil horizon may vary in thickness, mineral composition, and structure; they are indicated by the letters A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, etc. A1 horizon is the uppermost or surface layer of the soil and its fertility level is very important from viewpoint of an agriculturist.

Soil fertility depends not only on the presence of inorganic and organic substances, but also on the presence of various species of microorganisms which influence the qualitative composition of the soil.

The existence of soil, the store-house of Nature, furnishing substances for all plants, animals, men, and other organisms, dates back to uncountable periods, even long before the man appeared on the scene. Vast number of plants, animals and finally the man populated the earth and the soil supported them all entirely without human assistance.

That, soil is vastly complex material on the face of earth is the fundamental truth to be understood in its study. Being a common commodity, it means a different thing to a different man in different pursuit. A geologist would preferably consider it to be the outer loose crust of the earth surface; quite distinct from the bed rock lying beneath.

To a farmer, it is a medium to grow his crops in and from which the plants obtain their mechanical support and many of their nutrients. Chemically, the soil is endowed with a magnitude of organic and inorganic substances not found in the underlying strata; indeed it functions as nature’s chemical laboratory in which various dissolutions and synthetic processes go on continuously in a hidden manner.

A lay man, however, is always of the opinion that soil is dust, essentially a dead material, sustaining nothing like life within it. With regard to origin and evolution of life, it can be considered that soil is the depository of all lives within which are carried out most of the transformations that enable life to continue.

Ecologically, soil is the most dynamic component (lithosphere) of the global environment encompassing distinct communities of organisms in its realm.

For a building engineer, the soil is a substratum on which structures can be built. But nothing could be farther from the truth, a microbiologist would say. For him, soil appears to be a dynamic body on the surface of the earth, pulsating with life due to presence of myriads of microorganisms.

Essay # 2. Meaning of Soil:

The word ‘soil’ is derived from the latin word ‘solum’ , which means floor or ground.

Soil is a natural formation resulting from the transformation of surface rock by combination of climate, plant and animal life with ageing.

Soil is formed through following steps:

(a) The formation of regolith by the breakdown of the bed rocks process is called weathering or disintegration.

(b) The addition of organic matter resulting from the decomposition of plant and animal residue and reorganization of these components by soil material of varying depths.

‘Petrology’ is the science of rocks which forms soil. ‘Pedology’ is study of soil which includes origin of soil, its classification and its description. ‘Edaphology’ is the study of various properties of soil in relation to growth, nutrition and yield of crops.

Soil can also be defined as natural body which is formed at the boundary between lithosphere and biosphere by inter-chains of all factors involved in Soil formation considering both living and dead.

So soil contains not only minerals but organic (humus) and organo-mineral (complex or chilate) compounds. The soil contains 13 elements in general out of 16 required by plants for growth. The soil becomes polluted when the quantity of 13 elements decreases or increases irregularly due to industrial effluents.

Several hazardous chemicals and the mountains of wastes are ultimately dumped on the lands. Dumping of industrial and municipal wastes causes toxic substances to be leached and seep into the soil and affects the ground water course.

Modern agricultural practices introduce numerous pesticides, fungicides, bacteriocides, insecticides, biocides, fertilizers and manures, resulting in severe biological and chemical contamination of land. Apart from all these, direct pollution of soil by deadly pathogenic organism is also of major concern. The properties of soil change with pollution and sometimes soil losses its fertility permanently.

Essay # 3. Composition of Soil:

The chemical composition of soil is much diversified and depends upon chemical composition of rock but in general the following elements are present in it.

In many soils of arid areas the following water soluble salts have also been examined:

Except CaCO 3 , MgCO 3 and CaSO 4 all other salts dissolve completely in water.

Essay # 4. Soil Layers of Earth:

Soil is made up of rock which has been transformed into other layers due to vegetation and various micro and macro-organisms.

Several factors contribute to the formation of soil from the parent material. This includes the mechanical weathering of rocks due to temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical weathering activities, and lichens. Climate and time are also important in the development of soil.

In extremely dry or cold climate soils develop very slowly, while in humid and warm climates soils develop more rapidly. Under ideal climatic conditions, soft parent material may develop into 1 cm of soil within 15 years. Under poor climatic conditions, a hard parent material may require hundreds of years to develop into soil.

Mature soils are arranged in a series of zones called ‘soil horizons’ . Each horizon has a distinct texture and composition that varies with different types of soils. A cross-sectional view of the horizons in soil is called ‘soil profile’ .

The top layer or the surface litter layer, called the ‘O-horizon’ . It consists mostly of freshly-fallen and partially-decomposed leaves, twigs, animal waste, fungi and other organic materials. Normally, it is brown or black. The uppermost layer of the soil is called the ‘A-horizon’. It consists of partially-decomposed organic matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral particles. It is usually darker and looser than the deeper layers.

The roots of most plants are found in these two upper layers. As long as these layers are anchored by vegetation, the soil stores water and releases it in a trickle throughout the year instead of in a force like a flood. These two top layers also contain a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and other small insects, which help to recycle soil nutrients and contribute to soil fertility.

The ‘B-horizon’ , often called the subsoil, contains less organic material and fewer organisms than the A horizon. The area below the subsoil is called the ‘C- horizon’ and consists of weathered parent material. This parent material does not contain any organic materials. The chemical composition of the C-horizon helps to determine the pH of the soil and also influences the soil’s rate of water absorption and retention.

Soil with approximately equal mixture of clay sand, slit and humus are called loams.

Essay # 5. Basic Properties of Soils:

I. acidity and alkalinity of s oils:.

The pH of a good soil should be about 7 but due to industrial effluents the pH increases or decreases causing pollution in soil.

Soils are characterized by the following pH values:

Essay Curve

Essay on Soil – 10 Lines, 100, 200, 500, 1500 Words

Essay on Soil: Soil is a vital component of our ecosystem, playing a crucial role in supporting plant life and providing essential nutrients for crops. In this essay, we will explore the importance of soil, its composition, and the various factors that can affect its health and fertility. From erosion to pollution, soil faces numerous threats that can impact its ability to sustain life. By understanding the significance of soil and the challenges it faces, we can work towards preserving and protecting this precious resource for future generations.

Table of Contents

Soil Essay Writing Tips

1. Start by introducing the topic of soil and its importance in the environment. You can mention how soil is a vital resource for agriculture, biodiversity, and water filtration.

2. Provide a brief overview of the different types of soil, such as sandy, clay, and loamy soil. Explain how each type has its own unique characteristics and properties.

3. Discuss the composition of soil, including organic matter, minerals, water, and air. Explain how these components interact to create a healthy soil ecosystem.

4. Highlight the role of soil in supporting plant growth and providing nutrients for crops. You can mention how soil fertility is essential for sustainable agriculture and food production.

5. Explain the importance of soil conservation practices, such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and no-till farming. Discuss how these practices help prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health.

6. Discuss the impact of human activities on soil quality, such as deforestation, urbanization, and industrial agriculture. Explain how these activities can lead to soil degradation and loss of biodiversity.

7. Highlight the importance of soil testing and analysis in determining soil health and fertility. Explain how soil testing can help farmers make informed decisions about fertilization and crop management.

8. Discuss the role of soil in carbon sequestration and climate regulation. Explain how healthy soils can help mitigate climate change by storing carbon and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

9. Conclude your essay by emphasizing the importance of protecting and preserving soil for future generations. You can mention the need for sustainable land management practices and policies to ensure the health and productivity of our soils.

10. Proofread and revise your essay to ensure clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Make sure to cite any sources you used for information or data on soil science and conservation.

By following these writing tips, you can create a well-structured and informative essay on soil that highlights its importance in the environment and the need for sustainable soil management practices.

Essay on Soil in 10 Lines – Examples

1. Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. 2. It is essential for plant growth and provides nutrients and support for roots. 3. Soil formation is a slow process that can take hundreds to thousands of years. 4. Different types of soil have varying levels of fertility, drainage, and pH levels. 5. Soil erosion, caused by factors such as deforestation and improper farming practices, can lead to loss of topsoil and decreased crop yields. 6. Soil pollution from chemicals, heavy metals, and waste can contaminate groundwater and harm ecosystems. 7. Soil conservation methods, such as terracing and cover cropping, help prevent erosion and maintain soil health. 8. Soil testing is important for determining nutrient levels and pH balance for optimal plant growth. 9. Healthy soil is teeming with microorganisms that break down organic matter and release nutrients for plants. 10. Understanding and protecting soil is crucial for sustainable agriculture and food security.

Sample Essay on Soil in 100-180 Words

Soil is a vital component of the Earth’s ecosystem, playing a crucial role in supporting plant growth and providing nutrients for living organisms. It is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air that forms the top layer of the Earth’s surface.

Soil is essential for agriculture, as it provides a medium for plant roots to anchor and absorb nutrients. It also helps to regulate water flow and filter pollutants, making it an important part of the water cycle.

Healthy soil is teeming with microorganisms that break down organic matter and release nutrients that plants need to grow. However, soil can become degraded through erosion, pollution, and overuse, leading to loss of fertility and biodiversity.

It is important to protect and conserve soil through sustainable farming practices, reforestation, and erosion control measures to ensure that future generations can continue to benefit from this precious resource.

Short Essay on Soil in 200-500 Words

Soil is a vital component of the Earth’s ecosystem, playing a crucial role in supporting plant life, storing water, and providing a habitat for a wide range of organisms. It is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air, and is formed through the weathering of rocks and the decomposition of plant and animal matter.

One of the key functions of soil is to support plant growth by providing nutrients, water, and a stable substrate for roots to anchor themselves. The mineral content of soil, which includes elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, is essential for plant growth and development. Organic matter in the soil, such as dead plant material and animal waste, also contributes to the nutrient content of the soil and helps to improve its structure.

In addition to supporting plant life, soil also plays a crucial role in the water cycle. Soil acts as a reservoir for water, storing it during periods of rainfall and releasing it slowly to plants and groundwater. The structure of the soil, including its texture and porosity, influences its ability to hold water and allow it to infiltrate into the ground. Healthy soil with a good structure can help prevent erosion and reduce the risk of flooding by absorbing and storing excess water.

Soil is also a habitat for a diverse range of organisms, from earthworms and insects to bacteria and fungi. These organisms play a vital role in the decomposition of organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the soil and making them available to plants. They also help to improve soil structure by breaking down organic matter and creating channels for air and water to move through the soil.

However, soil is not a limitless resource and can be easily degraded through human activities such as deforestation, agriculture, and urban development. Soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and contamination by pollutants are all serious threats to soil health and can have far-reaching consequences for the environment and human well-being.

To protect and preserve soil, sustainable land management practices are essential. This includes practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and reduced tillage, which help to maintain soil fertility and structure. Conservation measures such as planting trees, restoring wetlands, and reducing runoff can also help to prevent soil erosion and protect water quality.

In conclusion, soil is a precious resource that plays a vital role in supporting life on Earth. By understanding the importance of soil and adopting sustainable land management practices, we can ensure that this valuable resource continues to provide for our needs now and in the future.

Essay on Soil in 1000-1500 Words

Soil is a vital component of our planet’s ecosystem, playing a crucial role in supporting life on Earth. It is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air that provides the necessary nutrients for plants to grow and thrive. In this essay, we will explore the importance of soil, its composition, and the various factors that affect its health and fertility.

Soil is the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems, serving as a medium for plant growth and providing a habitat for a wide variety of organisms. It is a dynamic and living system that is constantly changing and evolving through the processes of weathering, erosion, and decomposition. Soil is formed through the gradual breakdown of rocks and minerals by physical, chemical, and biological processes over millions of years. These processes result in the formation of different soil layers, each with its unique characteristics and properties.

The composition of soil can vary widely depending on factors such as climate, geology, vegetation, and human activities. The main components of soil include minerals, organic matter, water, and air. Minerals are the inorganic particles that make up the solid fraction of soil, providing essential nutrients for plant growth. Organic matter consists of decomposed plant and animal residues, which contribute to soil fertility and structure. Water is essential for plant growth and nutrient uptake, while air provides oxygen for soil organisms and helps maintain soil structure.

Soil is classified into different types based on its composition, texture, and structure. The most common soil types are sand, silt, and clay, with varying proportions of mineral particles. Sandy soils have large particles and drain quickly, while clay soils have small particles and hold water tightly. Loam soils are a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, providing a balance of drainage and water retention. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates or clumps, which affects water infiltration, root penetration, and air circulation.

Soil fertility is a key aspect of soil health, referring to the ability of soil to provide essential nutrients for plant growth. Fertile soils contain a balanced supply of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients, which are essential for plant growth and development. Soil fertility can be influenced by factors such as soil pH, organic matter content, nutrient availability, and microbial activity. Soil pH is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity, affecting nutrient availability and plant growth. Organic matter plays a crucial role in soil fertility by providing nutrients, improving soil structure, and supporting microbial activity.

Soil erosion is a major threat to soil health and fertility, resulting from the loss of topsoil through wind, water, or human activities. Erosion can lead to the degradation of soil quality, loss of nutrients, and reduced crop productivity. Soil erosion is exacerbated by factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, improper land management practices, and climate change. Sustainable soil management practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation, cover cropping, and agroforestry can help reduce erosion and improve soil health.

Soil contamination is another significant issue that affects soil quality and human health. Contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, industrial chemicals, and sewage can accumulate in soil through human activities and pose a risk to ecosystems and human health. Soil contamination can result in reduced crop yields, water pollution, and food safety concerns. Remediation techniques such as phytoremediation, bioremediation, and soil washing can help mitigate soil contamination and restore soil quality.

Soil biodiversity is a key aspect of soil health, referring to the variety and abundance of soil organisms that contribute to soil fertility and ecosystem functioning. Soil organisms such as bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and insects play crucial roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and soil structure formation. Soil biodiversity is influenced by factors such as land use, soil management practices, and climate change. Maintaining soil biodiversity is essential for sustainable agriculture, ecosystem resilience, and biodiversity conservation.

Soil conservation is a critical aspect of sustainable land management, aiming to protect and restore soil health and fertility. Soil conservation practices such as terracing, contour plowing, windbreaks, and riparian buffers can help reduce erosion, improve soil structure, and enhance water quality. Sustainable agriculture practices such as organic farming, agroecology, and permaculture promote soil health and biodiversity while minimizing environmental impacts. Soil conservation is essential for ensuring the long-term productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems.

In conclusion, soil is a vital resource that sustains life on Earth and supports ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being. Understanding the importance of soil, its composition, and the factors that affect its health and fertility is crucial for sustainable land management and environmental conservation. By adopting sustainable soil management practices, protecting soil biodiversity, and promoting soil conservation, we can ensure the health and productivity of our soils for future generations. Soil is a precious resource that must be preserved and protected for the benefit of all living organisms on Earth.

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Essay on Soil

Students are often asked to write an essay on Soil in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Soil

Introduction.

Soil is the top layer of the earth’s surface. It is a precious resource that provides plants with nutrients they need to grow and thrive.

Soil forms over many years from broken down rocks and decaying plants and animals. This process is called weathering.

Types of Soil

There are different types of soil, including sandy, clay, and loamy soil. Each type has its own characteristics and is suitable for different plants.

Soil is essential for life on earth. It supports the growth of plants, which provide food and oxygen for humans and animals.

Also check:

• Speech on Soil

250 Words Essay on Soil

Soil, a complex and dynamic natural resource, plays a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth. It is a mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms that collectively support the planet’s most fundamental ecological processes.

Soil Composition

The composition of soil varies greatly in different regions, influenced by five major factors: parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time. The parent material provides the basic mineral matter, while climate impacts the rate of weathering and organic material decomposition. Topography influences water drainage, organisms contribute to the organic matter, and time allows these factors to interact and alter the soil profile.

Soil and Ecosystem

Soil is a vital part of the ecosystem, serving as a medium for plant growth, a habitat for billions of microorganisms, and a natural filtration system for surface water. It also plays a key role in carbon cycling, helping regulate Earth’s climate.

Soil Degradation

However, human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, and poor agricultural practices are causing soil degradation, a severe global issue. Soil degradation leads to a decline in soil quality and reduces its capacity to provide essential ecosystem services.

In conclusion, soil is more than just dirt under our feet. It’s a complex system that sustains life and requires our attention and protection. By understanding the importance of soil and the threats it faces, we can make more informed decisions to conserve this vital resource.

500 Words Essay on Soil

Introduction to soil.

Soil, the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust, is a vital natural resource that sustains life on the planet. It is a dynamic system, continuously evolving and interacting with the living and non-living components of the environment.

Formation and Composition of Soil

Soil formation is a complex process that involves the weathering of rocks and the decomposition of organic matter over thousands of years. The parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time (collectively known as ClORPT) are the primary factors influencing soil formation. The composition of soil varies greatly and includes mineral particles (sand, silt, and clay), organic matter, water, and air. The relative proportions of these components determine the soil’s physical and chemical properties.

The Soil Profile

A soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that reveals the different layers or horizons. The topmost horizon, known as the O horizon, is rich in organic matter and humus. Below it lies the A horizon or topsoil, where most biological activity occurs. The B horizon or subsoil accumulates materials leached from the upper layers. The C horizon consists of weathered parent material, and the R horizon is unweathered bedrock.

Soil Properties

Soil properties can be broadly divided into physical and chemical properties. Physical properties include texture, structure, color, depth, and moisture content. These properties influence the soil’s capacity to retain water, its erodibility, and its suitability for plant growth. Chemical properties, such as pH, cation exchange capacity, and nutrient content, determine the soil’s fertility and productivity.

Soil and the Environment

Soil plays a critical role in the environment. It supports plant growth and is a habitat for countless organisms, contributing to biodiversity. Soil also plays a pivotal role in the carbon cycle, acting as a significant carbon sink. Moreover, it aids in water purification and flood prevention.

Threats to Soil

Despite its importance, soil is under threat from various human activities. Soil erosion, degradation, and pollution are major concerns. Unsustainable agricultural practices, deforestation, and climate change exacerbate these issues, leading to a loss of soil fertility and productivity.

Soil Conservation

Soil conservation is crucial for sustainable development. Techniques such as contour plowing, terracing, and agroforestry can significantly reduce soil erosion. Moreover, adopting sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic farming and crop rotation, can enhance soil fertility and reduce degradation.

Soil is not just dirt beneath our feet; it is a complex, dynamic system crucial for life on Earth. Understanding its formation, composition, properties, and the threats it faces is essential for its conservation. As stewards of the Earth, we must strive to protect and sustain this invaluable resource.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Business Management Ideas

Soil: Compilation of Essays on Soil | Geography

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Soil’ for class 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Soil’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Soil

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Soil Nature and Distribution of Vegetation

Essay # 1. Introduction to Soil :

In the last two or three decade’s environmentalists throughout the globe are really worried about the trend of climatic change experienced by mother earth. The history of earth reveals that the climate on earth was not always uniform rather it exhibited some great changes in different geologic era. The climatic changes in pre historic earth were probably due to astronomical or geologic reasons.

But with the advent of human civilization and advancement of technological knowhow the climatic scenario has shown a rapid change, even at a faster rate than the earlier ones. All the ecosystems with their biotic and abiotic components have either been affected by this climatic change or going to be affected very soon. Soil, as a part of terrestrial ecosystem, is not an exception to this.

Essay # 2. Soil-A Living and Dynamic System :

Soil as a habitat, as a part of terrestrial ecosystem and as an abode of innumerable number of organisms is tremendously complex and has often been considered to be a living and dynamic system. It is the shallow upper layer of earth’s crust and is derived from the massive rocks through a process of weathering. Both climate and biosphere are believed to play a significant role in the formation of soil and in the development of soil profile.

The colour, texture, physicochemical nature and biotic components of soils exhibit wide range of variation in different climatic regions on earth surface. Besides being considered as a living and dynamic system, soil has also been regarded as a three phase system, the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The solid phase is being represented by soil particles (of varying sizes) and organic matter.

The particles, sand, silt and clay are derived from weathered rocks and are present in varying proportions in different types of soils. The soil organic matter, an important source of nutrients is a heterogeneous mixture of comminuted and partly decomposed fragments of litter, animal carcasses and dead microbial cell. The water present in small or large amount in any soil represents the liquid phase. Soil air found in soil pores represents the gaseous phase of soil.

The oxygen and nitrogen ratio in soil air is more or less identical to atmospheric air. But the content of carbon dioxide is comparatively higher in soil air, it is about 0.03 per cent by volume in atmospheric air while it is more than 0.2 per cent in soil air. But water vapour content in both atmospheric air and soil air exhibits variation and depends on climatic factors like temperature, humidity, rainfall, etc.

The formation of soil depends on five factors viz., parent material, topography, time, climate and biosphere. The first three are called passive factors since they represent soil forming mass and conditions affecting it.

The last two viz. climate and biosphere are termed active factors since they supply energy to act upon the soil forming mass for the process of soil formation. Temperature and moisture are two important climatic agents that take active part in soil formation. The biosphere which includes both plant and animal world exerts significant influence on soil genesis.

The weathered materials or parent materials (developed through rock weathering) combine with organic matter and lead to formation of soil for which soil has often been referred to as “organo-mineral complex” . But the soil formation is not complete or it is not considered to be mature until the materials of soil are arranged in distinct layers or horizons forming the soil profile.

It has now been established that exact nature of mature soil profile depends upon the interactions between climatic factors, the biological agents, the topography of the land and nature of the parent rock.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Essay # 3. Biotic Components of Soil-Number and Activities :

i. Microflora :

Among the microbial organisms present in soil, bacteria outnumber all other groups in numerical abundance and are the most important participant of varied biological activities going on in soil. The bacteria in soil have numerous morphological and physiological adaptations that enable them to utilize their habitat effectively and successfully. The most important physiological adaptation is their capability to slow down the metabolic rate in order to obtain relatively high growth rate from meager resources available in soil.

The decomposition of animal and plant residues in soil are effectively carried out by heterotrophic bacteria which are numerous in number and their substrate selectivity varies from species to species. In addition to their participation in decomposition process some heterotrophic bacteria are known to take part in non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

The actinomycetes (intermediate forms between bacteria and fungi) are mostly free living saprophytic soil-form that are capable of decomposing various carbonaceous substances. In addition, they are known to degrade many polymers such as chitin, cellulose and hemicelluloses at a relatively higher soil pH. Many of the soil actinomycetes are known to exude antibiotics like streptomycin which is effective in controlling many human diseases.

The fungal flora in soil are major contributors of soil microbial biomass. They are obligate aerobes and heterotrophs and their main role in soil is the decomposition of organic matter from the simplest sugars and amino acids to the most resistant polymers such as lignin and complex soil humic acids.

Since fungi exhibit greater tolerance to acidity than bacterial heterotrophs, the decomposition of organic matter in more acid soil is predominantly a fungal process. For which in acid forest soils, fungal population is more favoured than bacterial flora. The symbiotic as well as mycorrhizal association of fungi with plant root is of considerable importance in regulating nutrient uptake, disease resistance, water relations and ultimately growth of associated plant partner.

The algal population in soil is photoautotrophic in metabolism and are largely restricted to surface soils or large cracks where sunlight can reach. The algae are known to produce large amount of polysaccharides that act as aggregating agents and help in developing and maintaining stable soil structures.

The microbial community in soil is considered to be the main driving force in soil ecosystem because it is this biomass that controls the rate of decomposition, mineralization, humification, nitrification and other biogeochemical processes in soil. But they are not evenly distributed and prefer certain niches or rhizospheric regions which may contain organic and inorganic substances as well as some amount of moisture. But the activity and performance of these microbial components in soil depend to a considerable extent on the presence of faunal community that are closely associated with the microbes.

ii. Soil Fauna :

The faunal component in soil is represented by animals of different phyla which according to body size are divided into three – microfauna, mesofauna and macrofauna. The protozoans belong to microfauna category and include flagellates, ciliates and amoebae. These forms secrete mucin or mucilaginous substances which help to bind the particles together leading to the formation of soil aggregates.

Soil nematodes have received much attention of the researchers for their damaging role as plant parasites in agricultural fields. But many of them are known to be free-living. They are abundant in soil and take active part in destruction of dead plant materials and also in the decomposition of animal matter. Earthworms and enchytracids (potworms), two important component of annelidan fauna, contribute a lot in decomposition of litter.

They are known to possess enzymes in their gut that accelerates the degradation of organic matter and thus help in releasing nutrients. In addition, the burrows and channels created by them allow easy penetration of air and water and make soil relatively porous. The casts released by earthworms are rich in mineral contents and they are in a more easily available form. Earthworms help considerably in aggregate formation in soil which is evident from large number of aggregates in earthworm rich soil.

The arthropod fauna in soil is fairly rich and include varieties of forms such as acarines, collembolans, centipedes, millipedes, isopods, pseudoscorpions and different insects notable among them are ants, termites, beetles, gryllotalpids, earwigs etc. In addition, different types of insect larvae are also well represented. Some component of arthropod fauna by accelerating the fragmentation of litter (comminution) leads to the completion of decomposition of litter layer that has already been initiated by micro-organisms.

The burrowing forms like ants and termites not only help in aeration and movement of water but also help in mixing and translocation of materials in soil profile. Non-borrowers like mites and collembolans help in aeration and drainage by eating decayed plant roots and thus leaving channels containing organically rich faecal matter. The microphytic feeders and carnivorous forms of arthropods may help in keeping down the population of harmful fungi and nematodes.

The land snails and slugs constitute important component of molluscan fauna in tropics and subtropics. They are found either on soil surface or in crevices or may be encountered below the soil surface. Land snails are known to prefer decomposed plant material probably because of the growth of fungal hyphae.

Thus feeding on surface vegetation and subsequent movement downwards indicate the probable role of molluscans in incorporating organic matter into the mineral structure of soil. But their role in decomposition of litter has not been established. They probably take part in breaking and altering the physicochemical nature of the Utter which subsequently promotes fungal and microbial growth.

Vertebrates like snakes, lizards, toads, frogs and burrowing mammals take shelter in soil temporarily or make this habitat as their permanent abode. But their role in modification or change of the physicochemical or biological properties of soil rather appear to be insignificant and has not attracted the attention of soil biologists for extensive study.

Essay # 4. Interaction between Climate, Soil and Soil Biota :

It is well known that air currents, water currents, snow cover and land mass influence the global climate while the climate of a region is influenced by latitude, altitude and availability of large bodies of water. The regional climate is a dominant factor that controls the formation of all soil, since it circumscribes the forms and rates of local weathering, the translocation of weathered products and other pedogenetic processes.

In case of global weathering climate is the major determinant of weathering process through its control of temperature and moisture, water flux and decomposition rates of organic material. In extremely cold climate weathering is practically a physical process while in cool and temperate climate a limited biochemical weathering may occur. But in hot and humid tropical climate geochemical weathering dominates that extend over very long period.

Climate is known to have a significant bearing on the decomposition process participated by soil biota. Decomposition of organic residues and the maintenance of soil structure are largely complimentary process in most soils. Because organic matter exerts significant effect on soil structure by acting as important cementing agent which binds soil particles together to form larger aggregates.

Decomposition, a very important biological process in soil may be defined as the sequence of organic matter transformation occurring after death of organism. These transformations involve two simultaneous but complimentary processes: mineralization and humification.

The first one is a catabolic process through which the elements contained in organic form within the biological tissues are converted to inorganic forms such as nitrate, phosphate and sulphate ions while the second one is an anabolic process where organic molecules are condensed into degradation resistant polymers called ‘Humus’ which may persist little altered for decades and centuries.

In order to assess the degree of importance in the involvement of decomposition process, Di Castri (1988) made a hierarchical analysis of the factors and placed climatic factors (moisture and temperature) in the first position being followed by edaphic factors, physical and chemical properties of decomposition resources and biological interaction between macro and microorganisms respectively.

We know that under normal situation of the environment the biotic components of the soil through their activities release different types of nutrients in the soil that are being taken up by the plants for their growth and development. This transfer process becomes more effective if there is a synchronization between the release of nutrients and their uptake by plants.

Thus the biotic components with the release of nutrients make the soil more fertile since the soil is able to satisfy plant demands for nutrients, water and an adequate aerated physical matrix for the growth of the plant roots. The activities of the biota become more significant when the two most important climatic agents like temperature and moisture are at the optimum level.

With the seasonal variation of these two factors the activity also undergoes changes. But when the climate experiences irregular and completely different changes all the activities are jeopardized and the fertile soil either becomes infertile or less productive or may even be converted into a barren land.

Essay # 5. Formation of Soil:

The soil formation occurs in two stages:

(i) Weathering of Rocks:

It may involve chemical weathering due to hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation-reduction or chelation of rock material; physical weathering due to heating and cooling, wetting, and drying, freezing, glaciation and action of wind (sand blasts); or biological weathering by bacteria, fungi and lichens due to their acids.

(ii) Pedogenesis:

In this, the weathered mineral matter and the decomposed organic matter undergo biochemical, biophysical and geochemical changes to form the fully developed true soil. So the process of soil development is called pedogenesis. Pedogenesis is more active in superficial layer of earth. Study of formation of soil is called pedology.

Essay # 6. Soil Types:

On the basis of its formation, the soils are classified into two major categories:

(i) Residual Soils:

These are formed by weathering and pedogenesis of the rock.

(ii) Transported Soils:

Transported soils transported by various agencies and are of four types:

a. Alluvial soils, transported by water.

b. Colluvial soils, transported by gravity.

c. Eolian soils, transported by air.

d. Glacial soils, transported by slipping of glaciers.

Essay # 7. Soil Profile:

On the basis of colour, hardness and other properties, the soil shows a sequence of more or less distinct layers, called horizons, superimposed one upon the other. This succession is due to differential activity of climatic and biotic factors upon the original parent rock so these layers differ in their physical, chemical and biological properties. This succession of superimposed horizons is called soil profile.

As many as four horizons are differentiated:

(i) A-Horizon:

It occupies the topmost horizon of true soil. It is rich in mineral and decomposed organic matter (humus).

It is further sub-divided into five regions:

i. A00 – or O 1 . It forms the uppermost layer and has fleshly fallen organic matter like leaves, twigs, flowers, etc. and is well-developed in forests.

ii. A00 – or O 2 . In this layer, decomposition of organic matter starts. So the upper part has the organic matter, in initial stages of decomposition called detritus, while lower layer has fairly decomposed matter called duff.

iii. A 2 -region. It is dark-coloured and has abundant minerals mixed with humus.

iv. A 1 -region. It is light-coloured part and has low humus and minerals (mainly sand). It is also called zone of eluviations (or leaching) e.g. leaching of Fe, Al etc.

v. A 3 -region. A transitional area between A and B horizons.

(ii) B-Horizon:

It is coarse textured dark coloured horizon containing large amounts of aluminium and iron compounds. It is also called zone of illuviation (redeposition of minerals). It is subdivided into three zones namely B 1 , B 2 and B 3 .

Two horizons A and B together constitute the solum. The solums along with the horizon O collectively form the top soil.

(iii) C-Horizon or Subsoil:

It is made up of incompletely weathered rocks. If weathering is fast then this horizon is poorly developed.

(iv) D-or R-Horizon:

It represents the unweathered parent rock, also called bed rock. It forms the base of soil profile.

Essay # 8. Types of Soil Particles:

These particles vary in size and on this basis, soil particles are divided into following categories:

i. Gravel = more than 2 mm

ii. Coarse sand = 2 to 0.2 mm

iii. Fine sand = 0.2 to 0.02 mm

iv. Silt = 0.02 to 0.002 mm

v. Clay = less than 0.002 mm

On the basis of relative proportion of these particles, soils are of following types:

i. Sandy Soil:

It is formed of 85% sand and 15% clay and silt. It is also called light soil. It has high porosity (percentage of pore-spaces in a given volume of soil) so has loose soil with low water holding capacity. It also has large temperature fluctuations. It is characterized by the xerophytic plantations. This soil is not rich in nutrients and is less fertile.

ii. Clayey Soil:

It is formed of 50% clay and 50% silt or sand or both. It is also called cold or heavy soil. It has fine pore spaces so very high water holding capacity. The temperature does not fluctuate much. It does not allow easy penetration of roots and has less waterlogging capacity and presence of CO 2 .

iii. Silt Soil:

It has 90% silt and 10% sand. It has good soil porosity and water holding capacity but is poor in nutrient supply.

iv. Loamy Soil:

It consists of 70% sand and 30% clay or silt or both. It is best soil for the plant growth because of its good water holding capacity, water infiltration and adequate aeration. Root penetration is also good in loamy soils.

Minerals, also called biogenic nutrients, are essential for the proper growth of organisms so the type and distribution of plants and animals are determined by specific distribution of minerals. Deficiency or absence or excess of minerals results in abnormal growth or even death of organisms.

v. Plants found in nitrogen-deficient soil have either nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria e.g. leguminous plants, or become insectivorous (e.g. Nepenthes—pitcher plant, Utricularia—bladder-wort etc.). Similarly, crustaceans also flourish only in that water which contains calcium.

vi. Snails occur in soils rich in calcium content.

vii. Halophytes and some sea animals have salt secreting glands.

viii. Soil, deficient in copper and cobalt, is unfit for raising cattle.

High concentration of minerals greatly limits the distribution of animals e.g. Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake (areas with high salt contents) are devoid of much vegetation.

Essay # 9. Soil Nature and Distribution of Vegetation:

The type of soil (sandy, loamy or clayey) and its water retention, aeration and mineral contents determine the nature of plants and animals.

On the basis of these characters of soil, the plants are divided into following ecological categories:

i. Halophyets:

The plants found on saline soils e.g. Rhizophora, Heritiera, etc.

ii. Psammophytes:

The plants found on sandy soils.

iii. Lithophytes:

The plants found on rocky surface.

iv. Chasmophytes:

The plants found in rock- crevices.

v. Oxylophytes (Calcifuges):

The plants found on acidic soils e.g. maize, barley, potato, Rumex and Rhododendron.

vi. Calciphytes:

The plants growing on calcium-rich soils.

Various minerals of soil are dissolved in soil water to form soil solution.

On the basis of mineral matter present in the soil solution, the soils are divided into two categories:

i. Oligotrophic Soils:

Have sub-optimum concentration of minerals in the soil solution.

ii. Eutrophic Soils:

Have almost optimum concentration of minerals in the soil solution.

(ii) Organic Matter:

The organic matter is added by the decomposition of plant and animal remains and the excreta of animals. Organic matter is found upto 20-30 cm below from the surface of the soil.

It is present in following forms:

Undecomposed organic matter. It is formed of dead plant material fallen on the floor.

Partially decomposed organic matter by the saprophytic action of actinomycetes, fungi and bacteria.

It is fully decomposed and finally divided dark and amorphous organic matter. Chemically, it contains carbohydrates, sugar alcohols, lipids (fats, oils and waxes), tannins, resins, lignin, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, alkaloids, carotenoids, etc. It contains 55-60’X, carbon, 35-40% oxygen, about 5% hydrogen and roughly 5% nitrogen. The formation of humus is called humification whereas the breaking of humus into minerals, CO 2 and water is called mineralizations.

Organic matter is a good source of minerals to plants. It increases water holding capacity, porosity and aeration of the soil.

(iii) Soil Water:

Soil water is more important than any other ecological factor in distribution of plants because it is required for meeting the metabolic and transportational needs of soil flora, soil fauna and the process of humification.

Soil water is derived from rain. Rain water occurs in following forms:

a. Run-Away Water:

It is drained away from the soil surface along the slope and is also called runoff. Its amount depends upon soil permeability, soil moisture, degree of slope and number of ditches.

b. Gravitational Water:

It is that amount of water which percolates downward under the force of gravity and finally reaches the water table.

c. Capillary Water:

The water held up by capillary forces between the soil particles in the micropores is called -Capillary water. This is the best form of water available to the plants.

d. Hygroscopic Water:

The water held by soil colloids tightly adsorbed on their surface is called hygroscopic water. It is non-available to plants.

e. Combined or Chemical Water:

A small quantity of water remains chemically bound to soil substances e.g. CuSO 4 , 5H 2 O, MgSO 2 , 7H 2 O. It is known as combined or chemical water and is not available to plants.

The total amount of water which a soil can retain per unit of its dry weight after the gravitational percolation has stopped, is called its water holding or field capacity. The capillary, hygroscopic and combined forms of water constitute the field capacity. It is represented as the ratio of maximum amount of water retained per l00g weight of soil. It differs with different types of soils. It is only 5% of the dry weight in sandy soils, 15-25% in sandy loam, 25-35% in typical loams and upto 45% in clay soils.

Soil water affects the plant life to a large extent because water acts as a medium for nutrient absorption and also influences the microbial population of soil.

(iv) Soil Air:

Soil air is present in the pores of the soil and is necessary for respiration of roots and soil flora and fauna. If the soil is not water-logged, its pores partly contain water and partly air. The soil air is slightly rich in CO 2 and poorer in O 2 due to respiratory activities of underground parts of plants and micro-organisms.

The oxygen of soil air is an important factor controlling soil fertility because it is required by humus forming micro­organisms, nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other soil organisms like earthworms which increase the soil fertility. It is also required for seed germination, development and growth of roots, absorption of water and minerals by roots, respiration of underground parts like rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, corms etc.

Some amounts of other gases like ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen may be present in the soil due to bacterial activity of decomposition.

(v) Soil Organisms:

The organisms found in the soil are divided into three categories, on the basis of their size:

a. Macrofauna.

It mainly includes animals like rabbits, rats and moles. These live partly or wholly inside the soil.

b. Mesofauna.

It mainly includes arthropods (beetles, insect larvae, termites, centipedes, and millipedes), annelids (earthworms), nematodes and mollusks (snails and slugs).

c. Microfauna.

It represents the soil microflora and microfauna and includes algae, fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, protozoans, etc. The algal components mainly include blue-green algae e.g. Nostoc.

These perform following functions:

(a) N 2 fixation in the soil by free-living Azotobactor, Closteridium, etc. Decomposition of organic matter leading to form humus e.g. earthworms, millipedes, slugs, snails, insect larvae, etc.

(b) Nutrient cycling.

(c) Pedogenesis.

(d) Bring sub-soil to the surface so improve soil aeration.

(e) Produce antibiotics (antagonistic to toxins produced in some soils.)

Releted Articles:

• 5 Main Functions of Micro-Organisms in Soil

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